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Egypt
Cradle of Life
There is much speculation as to the true age of Egyptian culture. Even though we are widely educated by Egyptian Gods and Goddesses and their distinct landmarks, historically, it is also known for its mathematics, irrigation, agriculture, writing, and ships.
History
As it evolved over time, and with the blending of other cultures, Egypt’s height of civilization was said to exist in 3500 BCE, and the remnants of this civilization can still be seen today with the giant pyramids, sphinx and other landmarks that dot the North African country.
Before delving into the polytheistic beliefs and vast pantheon of Egyptian mythology, we will learn about the cycles of spiritualities that have dominated Egyptian history. There are a variety of God’s and Goddesses that have evolved and changed over time alongside Egypt’s civilization. And we will learn more about them below.
Before delving into the polytheistic beliefs and vast pantheon of Egyptian mythology, we will learn about the cycles of spiritualities that have dominated Egyptian history. There are a variety of God’s and Goddesses that have evolved and changed over time alongside Egypt’s civilization. And we will learn more about them below.
Egyptian & Kemetic
Egyptian Mythology is one of the most well known in the world, especially for its incredible pantheon of gods and goddesses with vast and rich histories that spanned thousands of years. In recent times, the Kemetic Paganism movement has seen a revival of these ancient practices of worship, seeking to restore old rituals in new ways.
In general, creating altars with the symbology of the deity you wish to invoke, candles and crystals representing their colors (green being the most common and an easy base color) can facilitate your connection to these gods and goddesses. You may also wish to add food and drink offerings such as bread, beer, wine and herbs as these were most common in ancient times and will be well received by those deities.
In general, creating altars with the symbology of the deity you wish to invoke, candles and crystals representing their colors (green being the most common and an easy base color) can facilitate your connection to these gods and goddesses. You may also wish to add food and drink offerings such as bread, beer, wine and herbs as these were most common in ancient times and will be well received by those deities.
Amun-Ra
Supreme Sun God
History: Known also as Ra, Amun-Ra was known as the creator of the universe and was considered one of the most popular gods in Egypt. In early Egyptian civilization, he was worshipped as two separate gods; Amun, the god who created the universe and Ra, God of the Sun who travelled the skies in a burning boat by day and through the underworld by night.
These two gods were combined between the 16th and 11th century BCE.
Amun was one of eight primordial Egyptian deities and yet, he was perceived as an indivisible creator until his merge with Ra, where he took on a more nationally worshipped status and king of the gods.
Depictions: Goose, Snake, Ram, a man with the head of a Ram, Frog, Royal Cobra, Crocodile or Ape. When he took on the persona of Amun-Ra, depictions also changed his skin color to blue, to represent his connection to the sky and a sun disk.
Symbols: Eye of Ra, Sun Disk and Cobra.
Offerings: Anything blue or representative of the sun and sky, Crystal Camelian, Gold colours, singing and reciting poetry.
Rituals: There are a variety of ways to bridge a connection with Ra:
Create an Altar with ‘Eye of Ra’ symbol, candles, incense, sun imagery and water for purification.
Perform Solar Rituals, especially at sunrise, high noon, or sunset. These rituals do not need to be limited to only Ra worship as once you connect with him, ANY ritual or spells you wish to perform will have more power, especially if you invoke Ra to help you at those times.
Spells for Balance and Purification: As a creator and destroyer, Ra himself is the symbol of balance. These spells do not require complicated invocations or mass amount of ingredients, sometimes a simple bath in salt water can act as a purification ritual when taken at a certain time of day and with the right intention.
History: Known also as Ra, Amun-Ra was known as the creator of the universe and was considered one of the most popular gods in Egypt. In early Egyptian civilization, he was worshipped as two separate gods; Amun, the god who created the universe and Ra, God of the Sun who travelled the skies in a burning boat by day and through the underworld by night.
These two gods were combined between the 16th and 11th century BCE.
Amun was one of eight primordial Egyptian deities and yet, he was perceived as an indivisible creator until his merge with Ra, where he took on a more nationally worshipped status and king of the gods.
Depictions: Goose, Snake, Ram, a man with the head of a Ram, Frog, Royal Cobra, Crocodile or Ape. When he took on the persona of Amun-Ra, depictions also changed his skin color to blue, to represent his connection to the sky and a sun disk.
Symbols: Eye of Ra, Sun Disk and Cobra.
Offerings: Anything blue or representative of the sun and sky, Crystal Camelian, Gold colours, singing and reciting poetry.
Rituals: There are a variety of ways to bridge a connection with Ra:
Create an Altar with ‘Eye of Ra’ symbol, candles, incense, sun imagery and water for purification.
Perform Solar Rituals, especially at sunrise, high noon, or sunset. These rituals do not need to be limited to only Ra worship as once you connect with him, ANY ritual or spells you wish to perform will have more power, especially if you invoke Ra to help you at those times.
Spells for Balance and Purification: As a creator and destroyer, Ra himself is the symbol of balance. These spells do not require complicated invocations or mass amount of ingredients, sometimes a simple bath in salt water can act as a purification ritual when taken at a certain time of day and with the right intention.
Hathor
Goddess of Love & Beauty
History: Hathor was one of 42 state goddesses of Egypt and has still maintained her popularity even thousands of years later. As the goddess of love, music, dancing, fertility and motherhood, she is known as a great protector of women and was also known to welcome the dead to the afterlife, providing them with sustenance before their long journey.
Depictions: A beautiful woman with cow horns, a cow and a sun disk.
Symbols: Cow Horns, Sun Disk, Musical Instruments and was known to take the form of a cat, lion and a goose.
Offerings: Turquoise, gold, copper colours, crystals and images.
Rituals: Hathor, as the goddess of love and music can be communed with by simply singing to her, dancing, and reveling in the beauty of life. Applying makeup, wearing her colours above, and creating an alter with her imagery and offerings will facilitate ease of connection with her, especially for those who are mothers or seeking motherhood. As a patron and protector of women, you may call on her on behalf of yourself or another woman for guidance and protection.
History: Hathor was one of 42 state goddesses of Egypt and has still maintained her popularity even thousands of years later. As the goddess of love, music, dancing, fertility and motherhood, she is known as a great protector of women and was also known to welcome the dead to the afterlife, providing them with sustenance before their long journey.
Depictions: A beautiful woman with cow horns, a cow and a sun disk.
Symbols: Cow Horns, Sun Disk, Musical Instruments and was known to take the form of a cat, lion and a goose.
Offerings: Turquoise, gold, copper colours, crystals and images.
Rituals: Hathor, as the goddess of love and music can be communed with by simply singing to her, dancing, and reveling in the beauty of life. Applying makeup, wearing her colours above, and creating an alter with her imagery and offerings will facilitate ease of connection with her, especially for those who are mothers or seeking motherhood. As a patron and protector of women, you may call on her on behalf of yourself or another woman for guidance and protection.
Osiris
God Of Justice
History: Also called Usir, the Egyptian lord of the underworld and husband to Isis, Osiris is known as the god of death, rebirth, fertility and agriculture, most known for his gift of Barley to ancient Egyptians. The origin of Osiris is obscure and yet he was and is one of the most important gods of the Egyptian Pantheon. After his death at the hands of his brother Seth, then resurrection by his wife Isis, he descended to the underworld and became the lord of that domain. He becomes a lord and judge of the dead in the hall of truth who weighs the souls of the dead with a feather.
Depictions: a green skinned man holding a symbolic crook and flail and with partial mummy-wrapped legs (from his resurrection by Isis who bound his body parts together after Seth had separated them and scattered them all over Egypt).
Symbols: Atef crown, ostrich feathers, fish, mummy gauze and Djed Pillar.
Offerings: Barley, green colours, crystals and images, bread, beer.
History: Also called Usir, the Egyptian lord of the underworld and husband to Isis, Osiris is known as the god of death, rebirth, fertility and agriculture, most known for his gift of Barley to ancient Egyptians. The origin of Osiris is obscure and yet he was and is one of the most important gods of the Egyptian Pantheon. After his death at the hands of his brother Seth, then resurrection by his wife Isis, he descended to the underworld and became the lord of that domain. He becomes a lord and judge of the dead in the hall of truth who weighs the souls of the dead with a feather.
Depictions: a green skinned man holding a symbolic crook and flail and with partial mummy-wrapped legs (from his resurrection by Isis who bound his body parts together after Seth had separated them and scattered them all over Egypt).
Symbols: Atef crown, ostrich feathers, fish, mummy gauze and Djed Pillar.
Offerings: Barley, green colours, crystals and images, bread, beer.
Isis
Mother Goddess of Life & Death
History: Also known as the Mother of the Gods and The Great Magic, Isis was the wife of Osiris and is considered a super deity, connected to all aspects of life, death and time. Because of her part in resurrecting her husband Osiris, Isis was considered one of the most famous Egyptian deities of all time, with followers seeded all over the world.
Depictions: often depicted with a tail, a throne on her head and the famous Ankh. She was also depicted as a beautiful woman in a white sheath dress.
Symbols: Ankh, Thrones, solar disk, scorpion, birds, sistrum rattle and wings.
Offerings: Feathers, white and red flowers, Ankhs (drawings, jewelry), gold, tea, pink candles and perfumes.
Rituals: Isis was known as a great goddess of magic, so she is an excellent goddess to call on when you are creating and practicing magic. You can create an altar, set up a garden space (as she is known for residing in green things), and burn incense of frankincense, dragons' blood, sandalwood and clove.
History: Also known as the Mother of the Gods and The Great Magic, Isis was the wife of Osiris and is considered a super deity, connected to all aspects of life, death and time. Because of her part in resurrecting her husband Osiris, Isis was considered one of the most famous Egyptian deities of all time, with followers seeded all over the world.
Depictions: often depicted with a tail, a throne on her head and the famous Ankh. She was also depicted as a beautiful woman in a white sheath dress.
Symbols: Ankh, Thrones, solar disk, scorpion, birds, sistrum rattle and wings.
Offerings: Feathers, white and red flowers, Ankhs (drawings, jewelry), gold, tea, pink candles and perfumes.
Rituals: Isis was known as a great goddess of magic, so she is an excellent goddess to call on when you are creating and practicing magic. You can create an altar, set up a garden space (as she is known for residing in green things), and burn incense of frankincense, dragons' blood, sandalwood and clove.
Horus
God Of the Sky
History: The son of Osiris and Isis and is quite a famous God because of his victory over his uncle Seth who murdered his father Osiris. Many kings of Egypt would come to relate their bloodlines to Horus to share in that victory, and to become incarnations of Horus in life and Osiris in death. It was through Horus’s actions that led to lasting peace in Egypt, even sacrificing his own eye to ensure victory. He is often mistaken for Horus The Elder, one of the early gods of creation.
Depictions: often depicted as a man with the head of a hawk and the ‘Eye of Horus’
Symbols: Eye of Horus, Hawk or Falcon, green.
Offerings: hawk or falcon feathers, green candles, jewelry or crystals, images of the Eye of Horus,
Rituals: Horus’s four sons were charged with four canopic jars that were placed in a tomb at each cardinal point to protect the organs inside.
Following this similar ritual, you can use the four elements to call Horus to help you set a perimeter of protection when calling your cardinal points together and creating a safe, sacred space for you to conduct meditations, spells and rituals.
You can also wear The Eye of Horus jewelry for protection and prosperity.
North – Earth – Green Crystals
East – Air – Feathers
South – Fire – Green
Candles (you can etch the symbol of Horus’s eye on the candle for a more focused effect)
West – Water – Consecrated with Salt
To call the cardinal points and create a circle of protection, simply hold the element in your hand while facing its cardinal direction and state:
“Horus, God of the Earth, I call on you.” “Horus, God of the Air, I call on you.”
And so on, until you have held each element and faced each cardinal point.
Once complete, you can state “Lord Horus, I thank you for your guidance, this circle is closed.” (It is always important to close your circles and thank the spirits you invite into them!”
History: The son of Osiris and Isis and is quite a famous God because of his victory over his uncle Seth who murdered his father Osiris. Many kings of Egypt would come to relate their bloodlines to Horus to share in that victory, and to become incarnations of Horus in life and Osiris in death. It was through Horus’s actions that led to lasting peace in Egypt, even sacrificing his own eye to ensure victory. He is often mistaken for Horus The Elder, one of the early gods of creation.
Depictions: often depicted as a man with the head of a hawk and the ‘Eye of Horus’
Symbols: Eye of Horus, Hawk or Falcon, green.
Offerings: hawk or falcon feathers, green candles, jewelry or crystals, images of the Eye of Horus,
Rituals: Horus’s four sons were charged with four canopic jars that were placed in a tomb at each cardinal point to protect the organs inside.
Following this similar ritual, you can use the four elements to call Horus to help you set a perimeter of protection when calling your cardinal points together and creating a safe, sacred space for you to conduct meditations, spells and rituals.
You can also wear The Eye of Horus jewelry for protection and prosperity.
North – Earth – Green Crystals
East – Air – Feathers
South – Fire – Green
Candles (you can etch the symbol of Horus’s eye on the candle for a more focused effect)
West – Water – Consecrated with Salt
To call the cardinal points and create a circle of protection, simply hold the element in your hand while facing its cardinal direction and state:
“Horus, God of the Earth, I call on you.” “Horus, God of the Air, I call on you.”
And so on, until you have held each element and faced each cardinal point.
Once complete, you can state “Lord Horus, I thank you for your guidance, this circle is closed.” (It is always important to close your circles and thank the spirits you invite into them!”
Anubis
God Of death
History: Many have heard of the mighty Anubis, God of the dead, mummification, tombs, the afterlife, the underworld and judgment. He is known as the original god of the dead, son of Osiris and Nephthys, he determined if a soul would be allowed to enter the afterlife and guided souls of the dead to the hall of truth to have their hearts weighed to the feather of Ma’at.
Depictions: A man with the head of a jackal, carrying a staff
Symbols: The Color Black, Jackal head and Ankh.
Offerings: Black crystals (hematite, obsidian), clothing, jewelry, Cypress oil or incense, black candles
Rituals: There are a few ways you can honor Anubis, for example:
- Leaving flowers on a stranger's grave
- Creating a black alter with his symbols, black candles and offerings
As a guide to the dead, you can call on him to help you journey through your subconscious through meditation and intuitive writing.
History: Many have heard of the mighty Anubis, God of the dead, mummification, tombs, the afterlife, the underworld and judgment. He is known as the original god of the dead, son of Osiris and Nephthys, he determined if a soul would be allowed to enter the afterlife and guided souls of the dead to the hall of truth to have their hearts weighed to the feather of Ma’at.
Depictions: A man with the head of a jackal, carrying a staff
Symbols: The Color Black, Jackal head and Ankh.
Offerings: Black crystals (hematite, obsidian), clothing, jewelry, Cypress oil or incense, black candles
Rituals: There are a few ways you can honor Anubis, for example:
- Leaving flowers on a stranger's grave
- Creating a black alter with his symbols, black candles and offerings
As a guide to the dead, you can call on him to help you journey through your subconscious through meditation and intuitive writing.
Nephthys
Goddess Of Funerals
History: One of the Primal five gods of Nut and Geb, the twin of Isis and wife of Set, and the mother of Anubis, Nephthys is considered a dark goddess, opposite the light of her sister Isis.
Like Osiris and Anubis, Nephthys cares for the souls of the dead in the afterlife and is a guide for those suffering with grief. She is a protector of the dead and can be called on when harnessing magic and sacred spells when communing with the dead.
Depictions: a woman carrying an Ankh and with a house on her head and is often depicted as a mourner.
Symbols: Ankh, houses, sycamore tree, fire, Myrrh and the hawk.
Offerings: Incense, candles, basket filled with tokens and personal gifts.
Rituals: creating a black altar with green candles, a basket in the center and placing your offerings in that basket. Burn incense to carry your message to Nephthys.
History: One of the Primal five gods of Nut and Geb, the twin of Isis and wife of Set, and the mother of Anubis, Nephthys is considered a dark goddess, opposite the light of her sister Isis.
Like Osiris and Anubis, Nephthys cares for the souls of the dead in the afterlife and is a guide for those suffering with grief. She is a protector of the dead and can be called on when harnessing magic and sacred spells when communing with the dead.
Depictions: a woman carrying an Ankh and with a house on her head and is often depicted as a mourner.
Symbols: Ankh, houses, sycamore tree, fire, Myrrh and the hawk.
Offerings: Incense, candles, basket filled with tokens and personal gifts.
Rituals: creating a black altar with green candles, a basket in the center and placing your offerings in that basket. Burn incense to carry your message to Nephthys.
Bennu
The Phoenix God
History: A deity of creation and resurrection, Bennu is one of the oldest depictions of a phoenix-like creature in ancient mythology. It first appeared at the dawn of creation and flew over the primordial waters of the earth and was closely associated with Osiris as “He who came into being by himself.”
The symbol and mythology of the phoenix is well known throughout the world as the flaming bird who at the end of its life, dissolves into ashes, before being resurrected by those ashes once more. In later mythologies, the Phoenix was also known as an alchemical symbol, representing changes during chemical reactions and progressions of colours, properties of matter and was rumored to be used in the creation of the Philosophers stone.
Depictions: Flaming bird, grey heron
Symbols: sun, fire, bird (eagle, heron or peacock)
Offerings: red or purple crystals, candles and clothing. Feathers and also salt water (used to represent Phoenix tears, a powerful healing remedy).
Rituals: As its name and legend implies, any rituals and spells that involve fire and the burning of objects can invoke the presence of a phoenix, especially when we seek to release the past.
A phoenix can also be called on to help us when we seek liberation, strength and resilience, so through daily practices and carrying the symbol or imagery of the phoenix can help to instill its power and majesty to the wearer in everyday life.
History: A deity of creation and resurrection, Bennu is one of the oldest depictions of a phoenix-like creature in ancient mythology. It first appeared at the dawn of creation and flew over the primordial waters of the earth and was closely associated with Osiris as “He who came into being by himself.”
The symbol and mythology of the phoenix is well known throughout the world as the flaming bird who at the end of its life, dissolves into ashes, before being resurrected by those ashes once more. In later mythologies, the Phoenix was also known as an alchemical symbol, representing changes during chemical reactions and progressions of colours, properties of matter and was rumored to be used in the creation of the Philosophers stone.
Depictions: Flaming bird, grey heron
Symbols: sun, fire, bird (eagle, heron or peacock)
Offerings: red or purple crystals, candles and clothing. Feathers and also salt water (used to represent Phoenix tears, a powerful healing remedy).
Rituals: As its name and legend implies, any rituals and spells that involve fire and the burning of objects can invoke the presence of a phoenix, especially when we seek to release the past.
A phoenix can also be called on to help us when we seek liberation, strength and resilience, so through daily practices and carrying the symbol or imagery of the phoenix can help to instill its power and majesty to the wearer in everyday life.
Thoth
God Of Intellect
History: as the god of wisdom, knowledge and truth, he was known as a great inventor of things such as writing and became a record keeper for the gods. He was beloved by many Egyptian cultures for his gift of the written word to man and became known as the ‘Lord of Time’ as he recorded the passing of time, knowledge of the magical world and even stood as a record keeper in the hall of Truth during the weighing of hearts.
Depictions: a man with the head of an Ibis or a baboon holding writing implements.
Symbols: books, writing, writing tools, Ibis and baboons.
Offerings: anything written like a poem, story or prayer. Also offering earl grey tea, coffee, mint and images of Ibis or baboons.
Rituals: As a god of knowledge and wisdom, he is an excellent guide to those seeking hidden truths or a greater insight into the mechanics and magic of our universe. When seeking truth, you can create an altar.
History: as the god of wisdom, knowledge and truth, he was known as a great inventor of things such as writing and became a record keeper for the gods. He was beloved by many Egyptian cultures for his gift of the written word to man and became known as the ‘Lord of Time’ as he recorded the passing of time, knowledge of the magical world and even stood as a record keeper in the hall of Truth during the weighing of hearts.
Depictions: a man with the head of an Ibis or a baboon holding writing implements.
Symbols: books, writing, writing tools, Ibis and baboons.
Offerings: anything written like a poem, story or prayer. Also offering earl grey tea, coffee, mint and images of Ibis or baboons.
Rituals: As a god of knowledge and wisdom, he is an excellent guide to those seeking hidden truths or a greater insight into the mechanics and magic of our universe. When seeking truth, you can create an altar.
Heka
God Of Magic
History: Heka is the patron of medicine, magic and the primordial source of knowledge and power in the universe.
He is one of the oldest gods in the Egyptian Creation Myth, having been created around the time of Atum, the father of the gods and creator of the known universe. Physicians at that time were known as priests of Heka and were known to practice magic and medicine. It is believed that he killed two serpents and then entwined them to his staff as a symbol of power. This symbol came to be known as the Caduceus to the Greeks and is still a powerful symbol of medicine today.
Depictions: a man carrying a knife, staff and two snakes.
Symbols: The Caduceus, staff, snakes.
Offerings: Medicinal herbs such as frankincense, thyme, linseed and fennel, crystals, gold, amulets or Caduceus symbol (jewelry and art).
Rituals: Creating an altar or adding to an existing one the above offerings will facilitate the connection with Heka. Buying a Caduceus amulet and placing it on this altar will also allow Heka to bless the amulet which can provide a powerful talisman for magical practices and spellcraft.
You can call on Heka to aid you in any magical practice, but his true strength lies in the art of healing, so placing medicinal herbs, especially Egyptian ones, on the altar to be blessed before use can aid in healing practices.
History: Heka is the patron of medicine, magic and the primordial source of knowledge and power in the universe.
He is one of the oldest gods in the Egyptian Creation Myth, having been created around the time of Atum, the father of the gods and creator of the known universe. Physicians at that time were known as priests of Heka and were known to practice magic and medicine. It is believed that he killed two serpents and then entwined them to his staff as a symbol of power. This symbol came to be known as the Caduceus to the Greeks and is still a powerful symbol of medicine today.
Depictions: a man carrying a knife, staff and two snakes.
Symbols: The Caduceus, staff, snakes.
Offerings: Medicinal herbs such as frankincense, thyme, linseed and fennel, crystals, gold, amulets or Caduceus symbol (jewelry and art).
Rituals: Creating an altar or adding to an existing one the above offerings will facilitate the connection with Heka. Buying a Caduceus amulet and placing it on this altar will also allow Heka to bless the amulet which can provide a powerful talisman for magical practices and spellcraft.
You can call on Heka to aid you in any magical practice, but his true strength lies in the art of healing, so placing medicinal herbs, especially Egyptian ones, on the altar to be blessed before use can aid in healing practices.
Ma’at
Goddess Of Balance
History: Goddess of Truth, Justice and harmony, Ma’at is considered to be an important deity as she put the stars in the sky and regulated the four seasons. What makes her a powerful and important deity among other Egyptian gods is that she could transform into the feather used to weigh the hearts of mankind and would make the right judgment to enter paradise.
Depictions: a woman wearing an ostrich plum and sitting on her heels.
Symbols: ostrich feather, scales.
Offerings: food, wine, fragrant incense, ostrich feathers, white candles
Rituals: Ma’at is unique among the Egyptian gods when it comes to the ‘rituals’ associated with her. Instead, there are 7 principles that you can align to in your life and within your practices that will connect you with Ma’at.
Truth
Justice
Harmony
Balance
Order
Propriety
Reciprocity
History: Goddess of Truth, Justice and harmony, Ma’at is considered to be an important deity as she put the stars in the sky and regulated the four seasons. What makes her a powerful and important deity among other Egyptian gods is that she could transform into the feather used to weigh the hearts of mankind and would make the right judgment to enter paradise.
Depictions: a woman wearing an ostrich plum and sitting on her heels.
Symbols: ostrich feather, scales.
Offerings: food, wine, fragrant incense, ostrich feathers, white candles
Rituals: Ma’at is unique among the Egyptian gods when it comes to the ‘rituals’ associated with her. Instead, there are 7 principles that you can align to in your life and within your practices that will connect you with Ma’at.
Truth
Justice
Harmony
Balance
Order
Propriety
Reciprocity
Mut
Goddess of Soul Protection
History: A primal goddess known as a guardian over the lives of people and savior of the souls trapped by demons in the afterlife. She is seen as a divine protector, one who can weed out deceivers and would punish them for their sins. She is also known as a divine mother and sky goddess, the greatest of mother goddesses in ancient Egypt.
Depictions: a woman wearing a double crown or royal vulture headdress and carrying a Lily-Sceptor or papyrus.
Symbols: Vulture
Offerings: lotus flowers, incense, silver, gold, mirrors,
History: A primal goddess known as a guardian over the lives of people and savior of the souls trapped by demons in the afterlife. She is seen as a divine protector, one who can weed out deceivers and would punish them for their sins. She is also known as a divine mother and sky goddess, the greatest of mother goddesses in ancient Egypt.
Depictions: a woman wearing a double crown or royal vulture headdress and carrying a Lily-Sceptor or papyrus.
Symbols: Vulture
Offerings: lotus flowers, incense, silver, gold, mirrors,
India
Ayurveda & Hinduism
One of the biggest alternative medicine practices in the world, and from the Indian culture, Ayurvedia is the goal of restoring the balance in the body through spiritual and scientific practices. In India, Ayurvedic medicine is widely used and is officially recognised by the government as a sanctioned medical system while also being a common complementary medicine in other countries.
History
The origins of Ayurvedic medicine lie with very early Indian culture, which is one of the oldest and most influential civilizations in the world. The variety of distinct cultures, cuisines, religions and languages has historically been shaped by Muslim and British occupations.
Indian lifestyles remain highly diverse today and range from urban/modern to rural/traditional to tribal.
Practiced as a 'Science of life and daily living' since 1500 BCE, Ayurvedic Medicine can be traced back to the Indus Valley region and to 8000-year-old texts.
The term 'Ayurveda' roughly translates to mean 'the knowledge of longevity/life', from the Sanskrit Ayu = longevity and Ved = knowledge.
Ayurveda is considered to be more than just a system of medicine; it is a guide for daily conduct in relation to the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual components of holistic health and covers areas including:
Horticulture
Alchemy
Sociology
Ethics
Medicine
Culture & Spiritualities
Religion in India is a major influence on social culture, customs and art, with the major religions being:
Hinduism
Islam
Buddhism
Christianity
Hinduism
Hinduism may be the world's oldest religion, with roots traced back to the Indus Valley civilization, around 1500 BCE.
Involving several systems of philosophy, belief and ritual, Hinduism is generally regarded as a way of life rather than just a religion.
Today, about 80% of India’s population adheres to Hinduism.
Some of the key beliefs of Hinduism are:
Doctrines of Samsara: the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation.
Karma: the universal law of cause and effect.
The fundamental teaching of Hinduism is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind.
Indian lifestyles remain highly diverse today and range from urban/modern to rural/traditional to tribal.
Practiced as a 'Science of life and daily living' since 1500 BCE, Ayurvedic Medicine can be traced back to the Indus Valley region and to 8000-year-old texts.
The term 'Ayurveda' roughly translates to mean 'the knowledge of longevity/life', from the Sanskrit Ayu = longevity and Ved = knowledge.
Ayurveda is considered to be more than just a system of medicine; it is a guide for daily conduct in relation to the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual components of holistic health and covers areas including:
Horticulture
Alchemy
Sociology
Ethics
Medicine
Culture & Spiritualities
Religion in India is a major influence on social culture, customs and art, with the major religions being:
Hinduism
Islam
Buddhism
Christianity
Hinduism
Hinduism may be the world's oldest religion, with roots traced back to the Indus Valley civilization, around 1500 BCE.
Involving several systems of philosophy, belief and ritual, Hinduism is generally regarded as a way of life rather than just a religion.
Today, about 80% of India’s population adheres to Hinduism.
Some of the key beliefs of Hinduism are:
Doctrines of Samsara: the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation.
Karma: the universal law of cause and effect.
The fundamental teaching of Hinduism is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind.
Ayurvedic Cosmology
Ayurvedic cosmology (also known as Samkhya) outlines a way of looking at the universe that intertwines Ayurvedic principles with Hinduism.
It is a belief that universal cosmic energy exists in all things; both living and non-living, and that cosmic consciousness has male and female aspects and is the source of all existence.
In relation to health, Ayurvedic cosmology also practices the belief that separation from the Divine is a cause of disease.
Prana
'Prana' is the Sanskrit word for 'breath', and in Ayurveda, 'Prana' is known as the 'Unifying principle of life'.
Viewed as a universal energy that flows in currents in and around the body, or the subtle energy field that binds the mind, the concept of Prana has become more commonly used in recent years with the rise of yoga culture.
Prana is considered to be one of three transformative energies, which include:
Prana: Breath
Tejas/Agni: Fire
Ojas: 'The juice of life'
It is a belief that universal cosmic energy exists in all things; both living and non-living, and that cosmic consciousness has male and female aspects and is the source of all existence.
In relation to health, Ayurvedic cosmology also practices the belief that separation from the Divine is a cause of disease.
Prana
'Prana' is the Sanskrit word for 'breath', and in Ayurveda, 'Prana' is known as the 'Unifying principle of life'.
Viewed as a universal energy that flows in currents in and around the body, or the subtle energy field that binds the mind, the concept of Prana has become more commonly used in recent years with the rise of yoga culture.
Prana is considered to be one of three transformative energies, which include:
Prana: Breath
Tejas/Agni: Fire
Ojas: 'The juice of life'
Healing
Ayurveda is a form of constitutional medicine, meaning that therapeutic agents are administered based on the recognition of constitutional patterns of imbalance.
According to Ayurvedic beliefs, each of us was born with an unchanging constitution that affects different factors of our health and governs our patterns of balance/imbalance.
The Five Elements
According to Ayurveda, there are five different elements that form the basis of a person's constitution.
These elements make up all organic and non-organic things, including the energies of our cosmos, and manifest as patterns in all beings. Each human being is a unique mixture of all 5 elements to varying degrees.
The five elements are:
Water
Earth
Fire
Air
Space/Ether
The Three Doshas
According to Ayurveda, the five elements come together in different combinations to create a 'Dosha'.
Every individual possesses every Dosha to a certain degree and the constitution is determined based on which Dosha(s) are the most dominant.
The five elements (Air, Water, Fire, Earth, Space/Ether) combine to create three constitutional Doshas:
• Vata (a combination of Ether and Air) - this is a movement Dosha that governs motion, communication, thinking, and mental function. The qualities of this Dosha under stress are dry, cold, light, quick, rough, unstable and subtle.
• Pitta (a combination of Fire and Water) - connected to the characteristics of fieriness, strength and aggression. The qualities of this Dosha are digestion, absorption, metabolism, heat, and enzyme activity. Under stress, Vata is governed by hot, moist, light, fluid, sour, sharp and penetrating.
• Kapha (a combination of Earth and Water) - is the heaviest and most substantial of the Dosha’s and governs growth, lubrication, form, joints, bones and ligaments. Under stress Kapha is governed by heavy, cold, wet, slow, steady, soft, oily and sweet.
Balance of the doshas
Each person has a mix of all the doshas and tends to have one or two that are more dominant.
Together, the doshas determine all metabolic activity and specific metabolic pathways:
Kapha - Anabolism
Vata - Catabolism
Pitta - Metabolism
Imbalance within the body is believed to negatively affect health by pushing the doshas out of alignment. As a result, one or more of the doshas become aggravated or deranged.
Imbalance also negatively affects Agni (digestive fire) and produces ama (toxins)
Causes of imbalance
There are several different factors that may cause an imbalance within the body.
Some examples include:
Poor diet
Personal habits
Lifestyle
Seasonal changes
Repressed emotions and stress
Consequences of imbalance
As a result of imbalances within the body, the optimal state of health cannot be achieved. In Ayurvedic medicine, it is believed that imbalances result in the following:
Ama (toxins) enters the bloodstream and clog the channels.
Retention of toxins in the blood results in toxemia.
Accumulated toxicity slowly affects:
Prana (vital life energy)
Ojas (immunity)
Tejas (cellular metabolic energy)
Any subsequent symptoms are nature's effort to eliminate toxicity from the body.
If toxins are not eliminated, disease occurs.
According to Ayurvedic beliefs, each of us was born with an unchanging constitution that affects different factors of our health and governs our patterns of balance/imbalance.
The Five Elements
According to Ayurveda, there are five different elements that form the basis of a person's constitution.
These elements make up all organic and non-organic things, including the energies of our cosmos, and manifest as patterns in all beings. Each human being is a unique mixture of all 5 elements to varying degrees.
The five elements are:
Water
Earth
Fire
Air
Space/Ether
The Three Doshas
According to Ayurveda, the five elements come together in different combinations to create a 'Dosha'.
Every individual possesses every Dosha to a certain degree and the constitution is determined based on which Dosha(s) are the most dominant.
The five elements (Air, Water, Fire, Earth, Space/Ether) combine to create three constitutional Doshas:
• Vata (a combination of Ether and Air) - this is a movement Dosha that governs motion, communication, thinking, and mental function. The qualities of this Dosha under stress are dry, cold, light, quick, rough, unstable and subtle.
• Pitta (a combination of Fire and Water) - connected to the characteristics of fieriness, strength and aggression. The qualities of this Dosha are digestion, absorption, metabolism, heat, and enzyme activity. Under stress, Vata is governed by hot, moist, light, fluid, sour, sharp and penetrating.
• Kapha (a combination of Earth and Water) - is the heaviest and most substantial of the Dosha’s and governs growth, lubrication, form, joints, bones and ligaments. Under stress Kapha is governed by heavy, cold, wet, slow, steady, soft, oily and sweet.
Balance of the doshas
Each person has a mix of all the doshas and tends to have one or two that are more dominant.
Together, the doshas determine all metabolic activity and specific metabolic pathways:
Kapha - Anabolism
Vata - Catabolism
Pitta - Metabolism
Imbalance within the body is believed to negatively affect health by pushing the doshas out of alignment. As a result, one or more of the doshas become aggravated or deranged.
Imbalance also negatively affects Agni (digestive fire) and produces ama (toxins)
Causes of imbalance
There are several different factors that may cause an imbalance within the body.
Some examples include:
Poor diet
Personal habits
Lifestyle
Seasonal changes
Repressed emotions and stress
Consequences of imbalance
As a result of imbalances within the body, the optimal state of health cannot be achieved. In Ayurvedic medicine, it is believed that imbalances result in the following:
Ama (toxins) enters the bloodstream and clog the channels.
Retention of toxins in the blood results in toxemia.
Accumulated toxicity slowly affects:
Prana (vital life energy)
Ojas (immunity)
Tejas (cellular metabolic energy)
Any subsequent symptoms are nature's effort to eliminate toxicity from the body.
If toxins are not eliminated, disease occurs.
Ayurvedic Medicine
Ayurvedic medicine works to both treat disease and to prevent disease. The healing philosophy is the same for both:
General principles to achieve this include:
Proper diet
Appropriate lifestyle
Healthy habits
Exercise
Administering a proper cleansing program
Ayurvedic medicine utilises several different healing practices, including:
Diet
Herbal medicines
Yoga and meditation
Lifestyle/behaviour
Medicated enemas
Massage with medicated oils
Aromatherapy
Colour, gemstone and sound therapies
Panchakarma (5 actions of a cleansing and rejuvenating program)
Ayurveda is also found in most Western countries, though practitioners are often practicing under a different regulated credential, such as medical doctors, naturopaths, or herbalists.
General principles to achieve this include:
Proper diet
Appropriate lifestyle
Healthy habits
Exercise
Administering a proper cleansing program
Ayurvedic medicine utilises several different healing practices, including:
Diet
Herbal medicines
Yoga and meditation
Lifestyle/behaviour
Medicated enemas
Massage with medicated oils
Aromatherapy
Colour, gemstone and sound therapies
Panchakarma (5 actions of a cleansing and rejuvenating program)
Ayurveda is also found in most Western countries, though practitioners are often practicing under a different regulated credential, such as medical doctors, naturopaths, or herbalists.
China
Taoism & Buddhism
Existing for thousands of years and still widely practiced by millions today, the Chinese Medical System is the oldest, long-standing system of healing in the world. Through many incarnations and incorporations into its philosophies, it has stood the test of time and still has widespread global use today.
History
Chinese Medicine (CM) has had a very long and successful history throughout China and the world. It persists both in tandem with and separated from Western Medicine; being practiced as fully integrated with Western Medicine in China today. CM is interwoven with our human connection to nature, as well as the place of mind, body and spirit within nature's laws.
The preventative techniques and diagnostic methods of Chinese Medicine support the body's natural mechanism to prevent illness. This is a major contrast to conventional Western Medicine, which is a very reactive practice.
Chinese Medicine seeks to do the following:
To encourage smooth and harmonious flow of Qi and Blood.
To balance Yin and Yang, Hot and Cold, Dry and Damp.
To balance the five elements.
To diminish excess and replete deficiencies.
To address the cause of illness and guide patients on how to avoid future imbalances.
The preventative techniques and diagnostic methods of Chinese Medicine support the body's natural mechanism to prevent illness. This is a major contrast to conventional Western Medicine, which is a very reactive practice.
Chinese Medicine seeks to do the following:
To encourage smooth and harmonious flow of Qi and Blood.
To balance Yin and Yang, Hot and Cold, Dry and Damp.
To balance the five elements.
To diminish excess and replete deficiencies.
To address the cause of illness and guide patients on how to avoid future imbalances.
Taoism and Chinese Medicine
The main ways that Taoist philosophy informs Chinese Medicine are:
The continuity between nature and human beings.
The constant flux and transformation within the universe.
Contemplation and reflection of sensory perception of the world and nature is sufficient to understand the human condition, including illness and health.
Taoism
Taoism (also written as Daoism) is the philosophy most closely associated with Chinese Medicine. It is connected to ancient shamanistic traditions and uses imagery from ancient mystics.
The Tao is roughly translated to 'the way', meaning the path a person might follow.
Taoism is considered as a religion, mystical tradition, spirituality or philosophy.
The Tao has no perceptible qualities; it is indiscernible.
The Tao is the energy that pervades the universe and sets up its natural laws.
The aim of a Taoist is to remove all obstacles within themselves to allow them to follow freely within the flow of the Tao.
Taoist cosmology is based in more of a magical and alchemical space. It looks at life as a microcosm and views the universe as hierarchically organised; each sub-part mirrors the whole, e.g. The human mirrors the larger universe.
Central tenants of Taoism are Yin and Yang, as well as the Five Elements.
Close relationship between humans and universe; human is a microcosm that replicates the entire world.
Unity of humankind and natural order; we are a part of nature.
The continuity between nature and human beings.
The constant flux and transformation within the universe.
Contemplation and reflection of sensory perception of the world and nature is sufficient to understand the human condition, including illness and health.
Taoism
Taoism (also written as Daoism) is the philosophy most closely associated with Chinese Medicine. It is connected to ancient shamanistic traditions and uses imagery from ancient mystics.
The Tao is roughly translated to 'the way', meaning the path a person might follow.
Taoism is considered as a religion, mystical tradition, spirituality or philosophy.
The Tao has no perceptible qualities; it is indiscernible.
The Tao is the energy that pervades the universe and sets up its natural laws.
The aim of a Taoist is to remove all obstacles within themselves to allow them to follow freely within the flow of the Tao.
Taoist cosmology is based in more of a magical and alchemical space. It looks at life as a microcosm and views the universe as hierarchically organised; each sub-part mirrors the whole, e.g. The human mirrors the larger universe.
Central tenants of Taoism are Yin and Yang, as well as the Five Elements.
Close relationship between humans and universe; human is a microcosm that replicates the entire world.
Unity of humankind and natural order; we are a part of nature.
Yin and Yang
Everything in the universe is composed of a combination of Yin and Yang. They must be equal and in harmony in order to achieve balance.
Yin and Yang are:
In opposition
Are interdependent (one cannot exist without the other)
Each consumes and is transformed into the other
Each is complementary to and gives meaning to the other, e.g. We can see and understand light because we have darkness.
Yin and Yang must be equal and in harmony in order to create health; achieving balance is the core underpinning principle of health.
Yin and Yang are:
In opposition
Are interdependent (one cannot exist without the other)
Each consumes and is transformed into the other
Each is complementary to and gives meaning to the other, e.g. We can see and understand light because we have darkness.
Yin and Yang must be equal and in harmony in order to create health; achieving balance is the core underpinning principle of health.
Five Phases or Elements
Achieving balance is the core underpinning principle of health. The further out of balance these principles become, the greater risk of developing disease.
Chinese Medicine treatment focusses on balancing these properties.
Qi is seen as the unifying principle of life but can be quite hard to define. It is not something that can be measured; rather it is perceived by what it does. Qi is the 'vital energy' that flows through all of nature and sustains life. Chinese Medicine is concerned with the strength and weakness of Qi, and whether it is blocked or imbalanced; thus, affecting one's health.
The Chinese Medicine tradition is based on the Five Phases or Elements that make up all of nature. These elements are not only the conceptual framework for the CM tradition, but they also function as methods used to inform and provide treatment.
Wood Correspondences
Organs: Liver and Gallbladder
Functions: ligaments and tendons, eyes and vision
Personality Traits: kindness and anger, determination, structure and planning, creativity
Fire Correspondences
Organs: heart, small intestine, pericardium, triple warmer
Functions: blood vessels, complexion, tongue
Personality Traits: Joy and bitterness, compassion, relationships, spirit and self-expression
Earth Correspondences
Organs: spleen, pancreas, stomach
Functions: muscles, mucous membranes, mouth
Personality Traits: sympathy and obsession, nourishment and support, contentment and stability
Metal Correspondences
Organs: lungs, large intestines
Functions: skin, nose
Personality Traits: inspiration and grief, perfection and self-worth, meaning, respect
Water Correspondences
Organs: kidney, bladder
Functions: bones, teeth, endocrine system
Personality Traits: courage and fear, power and will, wisdom and intuition
Chinese Medicine treatment focusses on balancing these properties.
Qi is seen as the unifying principle of life but can be quite hard to define. It is not something that can be measured; rather it is perceived by what it does. Qi is the 'vital energy' that flows through all of nature and sustains life. Chinese Medicine is concerned with the strength and weakness of Qi, and whether it is blocked or imbalanced; thus, affecting one's health.
The Chinese Medicine tradition is based on the Five Phases or Elements that make up all of nature. These elements are not only the conceptual framework for the CM tradition, but they also function as methods used to inform and provide treatment.
Wood Correspondences
Organs: Liver and Gallbladder
Functions: ligaments and tendons, eyes and vision
Personality Traits: kindness and anger, determination, structure and planning, creativity
Fire Correspondences
Organs: heart, small intestine, pericardium, triple warmer
Functions: blood vessels, complexion, tongue
Personality Traits: Joy and bitterness, compassion, relationships, spirit and self-expression
Earth Correspondences
Organs: spleen, pancreas, stomach
Functions: muscles, mucous membranes, mouth
Personality Traits: sympathy and obsession, nourishment and support, contentment and stability
Metal Correspondences
Organs: lungs, large intestines
Functions: skin, nose
Personality Traits: inspiration and grief, perfection and self-worth, meaning, respect
Water Correspondences
Organs: kidney, bladder
Functions: bones, teeth, endocrine system
Personality Traits: courage and fear, power and will, wisdom and intuition
Chinese Medicine Substances
Chinese Medicine states that the body consists of both internal substances and external factors.
Blood (Xue)
Blood and Qi are seen as the Yin and Yang of ordinary life activity.
Blood nourishes Qi, and Qi 'leads' the blood
The intermediate state between blood and Qi makes up the bodily fluids
Blood is a Yin substance
Essence (Jing)
Jing is a fluid-like substance that underlies all organic life.
It is supportive and nutritive, and is the basis of reproduction and development
Jing originates from two sources: prenatal and postnatal
Basis of constitutional strength
Spirit (Shen)
Shen is translated as Spirit within Chinese Medicine. It is said to be an elusive substance, and unique to human life.
It resides in the heart and corresponds to the mind
Human consciousness indicates the presence of
Shen. It is a Yang substance
Healing
Traditionally in China, doctors were paid regularly by their patients to help them maintain wellness, and if the patient got sick, the doctor would provide services without payment.
Practices of CM can be applied to daily life to stimulate and maintain better health without waiting for illness to arise.
Blood (Xue)
Blood and Qi are seen as the Yin and Yang of ordinary life activity.
Blood nourishes Qi, and Qi 'leads' the blood
The intermediate state between blood and Qi makes up the bodily fluids
Blood is a Yin substance
Essence (Jing)
Jing is a fluid-like substance that underlies all organic life.
It is supportive and nutritive, and is the basis of reproduction and development
Jing originates from two sources: prenatal and postnatal
Basis of constitutional strength
Spirit (Shen)
Shen is translated as Spirit within Chinese Medicine. It is said to be an elusive substance, and unique to human life.
It resides in the heart and corresponds to the mind
Human consciousness indicates the presence of
Shen. It is a Yang substance
Healing
Traditionally in China, doctors were paid regularly by their patients to help them maintain wellness, and if the patient got sick, the doctor would provide services without payment.
Practices of CM can be applied to daily life to stimulate and maintain better health without waiting for illness to arise.
Major Healing Practices
The major healing practices used by CM physicians are:
Acupuncture - Acupuncture is the insertion of fine, solid needles into specific points lying on meridians in the body to affect the movement of Qi and Blood.
Moxibustion - Moxibustion is the stimulation of points using the heat of burning powdered leaves. It originated in Mongolia, then later incorporated into Chinese and Tibetan Medicine.
Chinese Herbal Medicine - First standardized during the Song Dynasty (960-1234 CE), Chinese Herbal Medicine is very common and still widely used today as a form of treatment.
Chinese Dietetics (Diet Therapy) - Chinese Dietetics is food therapeutics, used both to promote general wellness and to aid in recovery from illness.
Chinese Exercise Therapy (Qi Gong and Tai Chi) - Qigong and Tai Chi are forms of exercise that are used to target specific elements in the body.
Qigong is a meditative energy and breathing therapy that is used to restore balance and flow of Qi and promote breathing. In its core it is about cultivating the 'vital source'.
Tai Chi is a gentle martial art that involves relaxed and regulated movement to balance Yin and Yang and promote strength and suppleness within the body.
Massage (Tui-Na) - Chinese Massage therapy has been an integral component of CM for at least 2000 years.
Cupping and Scraping - Cupping is the use of specialized glass or plastic suctioned to the skin, drawing blood to the surface. Scraping (gua sha) is the use of a metal or stone implement to scrape the skin, bringing heat to the surface.
Acupuncture - Acupuncture is the insertion of fine, solid needles into specific points lying on meridians in the body to affect the movement of Qi and Blood.
Moxibustion - Moxibustion is the stimulation of points using the heat of burning powdered leaves. It originated in Mongolia, then later incorporated into Chinese and Tibetan Medicine.
Chinese Herbal Medicine - First standardized during the Song Dynasty (960-1234 CE), Chinese Herbal Medicine is very common and still widely used today as a form of treatment.
Chinese Dietetics (Diet Therapy) - Chinese Dietetics is food therapeutics, used both to promote general wellness and to aid in recovery from illness.
Chinese Exercise Therapy (Qi Gong and Tai Chi) - Qigong and Tai Chi are forms of exercise that are used to target specific elements in the body.
Qigong is a meditative energy and breathing therapy that is used to restore balance and flow of Qi and promote breathing. In its core it is about cultivating the 'vital source'.
Tai Chi is a gentle martial art that involves relaxed and regulated movement to balance Yin and Yang and promote strength and suppleness within the body.
Massage (Tui-Na) - Chinese Massage therapy has been an integral component of CM for at least 2000 years.
Cupping and Scraping - Cupping is the use of specialized glass or plastic suctioned to the skin, drawing blood to the surface. Scraping (gua sha) is the use of a metal or stone implement to scrape the skin, bringing heat to the surface.
Japan
Shinto & Buddhism
The origin of human life is uncertain, and yet historians have found paleolithic tools dating to 30,000-10,000 BCE. Migrations were believed to have occurred via Korea and Northeast Asia. The earliest recorded historical era is the Joman Period. The Jomans were believed to be a tribal society with shamanic customs. Though Japan has a murky early history, we know that the official religion of Japan is Shinto, a polytheistic religion that worships the divine in nature and in all things.
Shinto
Japan's indigenous religion is called Shinto. It evolved and developed uniquely in Japan before the arrival of Buddhism from China and Korea. The term emerged in the 6th century to differentiate from Buddhism in China.
Shinto means the way of kami (kami meaning 'divine' or 'sacred') and is a polytheistic religion which worships the divine in nature and all things.
Shinto has no recognised founder, official texts or strict dogma, but it is deeply interwoven into the Japanese belief system today.
With Shinto came the foundation for the Japanese moral-ethical framework.
Three main types:
Jinja Shinto (Shrine Shinto)
Kyoha Shinto (Sect Shinto)
Minzoku Shinto (Folk Shinto)
Shinto means the way of kami (kami meaning 'divine' or 'sacred') and is a polytheistic religion which worships the divine in nature and all things.
Shinto has no recognised founder, official texts or strict dogma, but it is deeply interwoven into the Japanese belief system today.
With Shinto came the foundation for the Japanese moral-ethical framework.
Three main types:
Jinja Shinto (Shrine Shinto)
Kyoha Shinto (Sect Shinto)
Minzoku Shinto (Folk Shinto)
Buddhism
Buddhism officially arrived in Japan from China via Korea in 552. Initially, it was seen as superstitious and a form of magic but eventually it was accepted into Japanese culture by imperial decree.
The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism are:
In life there is suffering
Suffering has a cause
There is a way to cease suffering
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to end suffering
Shinto started to become absorbed into the Buddhist framework and from the 8th century, a Buddhistic Shinto developed.
But during the Meiji Restoration in 1892, there was a significant social, cultural and political overhaul and the emperor decided to separate Shinto and Buddhism again.
Religion, politics and power intersected variously over the centuries, impacting the development of the differing versions – or sects – of Buddhism and Shinto, as well as the dominance of Chinese Taoism and Confucianism.
The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism are:
In life there is suffering
Suffering has a cause
There is a way to cease suffering
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to end suffering
Shinto started to become absorbed into the Buddhist framework and from the 8th century, a Buddhistic Shinto developed.
But during the Meiji Restoration in 1892, there was a significant social, cultural and political overhaul and the emperor decided to separate Shinto and Buddhism again.
Religion, politics and power intersected variously over the centuries, impacting the development of the differing versions – or sects – of Buddhism and Shinto, as well as the dominance of Chinese Taoism and Confucianism.
Zen
Zen originates with Ch’an Buddhism in China, which is a synthesis of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Chinese Taoism.
Founded in the 6th century by the Indian Buddhist Patriarch, Bodhidharma in China, Zen spread to Korea in the 7th and to Japan in the 12th century.
Zen Buddhism strips back scriptural dogma, attempting to attain a direct experience of enlightenment.
Founded in the 6th century by the Indian Buddhist Patriarch, Bodhidharma in China, Zen spread to Korea in the 7th and to Japan in the 12th century.
Zen Buddhism strips back scriptural dogma, attempting to attain a direct experience of enlightenment.
Shingon & Mikkyo
Shingon is a form of esoteric Buddhism. It was introduced to Japan from China in the 7th century. Mikkyo is the Japanese term for 'esoteric Buddhism', sometimes translated as 'secret teachings'.
The practice is aimed at attaining 'enlightenment in this lifetime'. Teaching is transmitted from one person to another, often spiritually rather than verbally. Rites hark back to esoteric Indian Buddhist rituals.
The practice is aimed at attaining 'enlightenment in this lifetime'. Teaching is transmitted from one person to another, often spiritually rather than verbally. Rites hark back to esoteric Indian Buddhist rituals.
Reiki
Popularized by spiritual healers all over the world, Reiki Energy Healing (also known as Johrei) is a Japanese practice that involves palm healing through which universal energy is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient to encourage healing. Practitioners postulate that Qi is physiological and can be manipulated to treat a disease or condition. Beginning in the 11th century, Reiki uses energy healing to remove negative energies and blockages/ blockades in the patient’s body.
The Five Principles of Reiki Healing
Just for today, do not worry
Just for today, do not anger
Just for today, be humble
Just for today, be honest
Just for today, be compassionate toward yourself and others
The Five Principles of Reiki Healing
Just for today, do not worry
Just for today, do not anger
Just for today, be humble
Just for today, be honest
Just for today, be compassionate toward yourself and others
Healing
Until the 6th century, the Japanese people used shaman-like practices, exorcisms, purifications and unrefined herbal medicine practice.
In the 6th century, Chinese medicine arrived in Japan. At this time, Japan adopted the Chinese alphabet, which facilitated an increased understanding of Buddhism, Confucianism, government, divination practices and medicine.
Kampo
The Japanese application of Chinese herbal medicine theory and treatment is called Kampo (= 'the Chinese Method').
Kampo is heavily informed by two fundamental Han Dynasty Chinese herbal medicine texts by the author Zhang Zhongjong:
Shang Han Lun (Treatise on Cold Injury)
Jin Gui Yao Lue (Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Cabinet)
Kampo Concepts
In-You (Yin-Yang)
Gogyou (Five Lines)
Ki (Qi)
Sui (Water)
Ketu (Blood)
The patient’s symptoms are recognised through these basic concepts and the practitioner forms a Sho (Diagnosis) based on the pattern of disease – this directs the selection of herbal medicines for treatment.
The books include ingredients such as oyster shell, dragon bone, gypsum and talc in the formulations.
In the 6th century, Chinese medicine arrived in Japan. At this time, Japan adopted the Chinese alphabet, which facilitated an increased understanding of Buddhism, Confucianism, government, divination practices and medicine.
Kampo
The Japanese application of Chinese herbal medicine theory and treatment is called Kampo (= 'the Chinese Method').
Kampo is heavily informed by two fundamental Han Dynasty Chinese herbal medicine texts by the author Zhang Zhongjong:
Shang Han Lun (Treatise on Cold Injury)
Jin Gui Yao Lue (Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Cabinet)
Kampo Concepts
In-You (Yin-Yang)
Gogyou (Five Lines)
Ki (Qi)
Sui (Water)
Ketu (Blood)
The patient’s symptoms are recognised through these basic concepts and the practitioner forms a Sho (Diagnosis) based on the pattern of disease – this directs the selection of herbal medicines for treatment.
The books include ingredients such as oyster shell, dragon bone, gypsum and talc in the formulations.
Changes in Japanese Medicine
The presence of western medicine saw local acupuncture knowledge neglected, with harmful effects on its development.
For instance, instead of applying the concept of the meridian system to move energy around the entire body, acupuncture was used to simply stimulate local points where the needle was inserted.
Revival
Relegated to the edge of medicine, Japanese medicines including acupuncture-moxibustion and Kampo fell further into decline.
But luckily, a ‘neo-classical’ revival sprang up in the mid-1920s when a passionate group of practitioners maintained and built on the original pre-biomedical traditions.
Japanese Acupuncture
There is no representative style of Japanese acupuncture, but many diverse traditions.
Japanese acupuncture treats deficiency and excess, hot and cold in the meridians and organs.
Japanese styles are known for their delicate and superficial needling techniques; however, deeper needling is also used when called for.
Types
Evolved from the history of Japanese medicine with Western and Chinese influences, there are three main categories that exist in Japan today:
The stimulation therapy school
A modern Chinese medicine-based style
Meridian therapy - A style based on the flow of Ki in the meridians
For instance, instead of applying the concept of the meridian system to move energy around the entire body, acupuncture was used to simply stimulate local points where the needle was inserted.
Revival
Relegated to the edge of medicine, Japanese medicines including acupuncture-moxibustion and Kampo fell further into decline.
But luckily, a ‘neo-classical’ revival sprang up in the mid-1920s when a passionate group of practitioners maintained and built on the original pre-biomedical traditions.
Japanese Acupuncture
There is no representative style of Japanese acupuncture, but many diverse traditions.
Japanese acupuncture treats deficiency and excess, hot and cold in the meridians and organs.
Japanese styles are known for their delicate and superficial needling techniques; however, deeper needling is also used when called for.
Types
Evolved from the history of Japanese medicine with Western and Chinese influences, there are three main categories that exist in Japan today:
The stimulation therapy school
A modern Chinese medicine-based style
Meridian therapy - A style based on the flow of Ki in the meridians
Japanese Moxibustion
Moxibustion is the burning of parts of the Mugwort plant on, over or near the body to introduce heat.
Moxibustion traditionally developed hand-in-hand with acupuncture and later became a highly refined art.
Japanese Moxibustion is distinct in methodology from moxa’s use in other East Asian medical traditions.
Purpose of Moxibustion
Moxibustion is a form of heat therapy where added heat to the body, aims to:
Tonify Yang, Yin or Qi,
Move Qi and/or Blood
To stimulate the release of heat in some applications
Moxibustion traditionally developed hand-in-hand with acupuncture and later became a highly refined art.
Japanese Moxibustion is distinct in methodology from moxa’s use in other East Asian medical traditions.
Purpose of Moxibustion
Moxibustion is a form of heat therapy where added heat to the body, aims to:
Tonify Yang, Yin or Qi,
Move Qi and/or Blood
To stimulate the release of heat in some applications
Hara
Hara is a fundamental concept in Japanese culture and medicine. It arises from the Chinese philosophical and medical classics and Buddhist meditative traditions.
Hara is actually an untranslatable term that relates to the structural and energetic ‘center’ of the whole person – the abdomen.
Hara is developed experientially through the practice of Japanese arts, including:
Noh/butoh (forms of dance)
chanoyu (tea ceremony)
ikebana (flower arranging)
martial arts
Hara Diagnosis
Hara diagnosis is the principle palpatory diagnostic system in Japanese healing traditions – also used extensively for treatment.
It originates from concepts in two Chinese textbooks Huang Di Nei Jing (Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic) and Nan Jing (Classic of Difficulties). The Japanese uptake and development of Nan Jing concepts - including Hara diagnosis - reflect the country’s unique evolution of the medicines originating in China.
The basic idea of Hara Diagnosis
The origins of a person’s vital energy arise from the space between the kidneys.
This is the space where the organs reside.
A nexus of interaction exists here between the organs and the meridians.
By palpating this region, the practitioner can gain insight into deep states of health or ill-health.
Hara is actually an untranslatable term that relates to the structural and energetic ‘center’ of the whole person – the abdomen.
Hara is developed experientially through the practice of Japanese arts, including:
Noh/butoh (forms of dance)
chanoyu (tea ceremony)
ikebana (flower arranging)
martial arts
Hara Diagnosis
Hara diagnosis is the principle palpatory diagnostic system in Japanese healing traditions – also used extensively for treatment.
It originates from concepts in two Chinese textbooks Huang Di Nei Jing (Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic) and Nan Jing (Classic of Difficulties). The Japanese uptake and development of Nan Jing concepts - including Hara diagnosis - reflect the country’s unique evolution of the medicines originating in China.
The basic idea of Hara Diagnosis
The origins of a person’s vital energy arise from the space between the kidneys.
This is the space where the organs reside.
A nexus of interaction exists here between the organs and the meridians.
By palpating this region, the practitioner can gain insight into deep states of health or ill-health.
Greco-Roman
Ancient Greek medicine demonstrates the evolution of thought from supernatural ideas about health and disease, to philosophical ideas, to empirical ideas, which finally led to scientific ideas. There are 5 distinct periods of Greco-Roman history that highlight this transition of thought.
Important Historical Note
It is important to note here that Arabic philosophers have been instrumental in the preservation of Greco-Roman medical and historical texts. The Byzantine Empire is one of the most notable of these times.
Minoan Civilization
Originating in Crete during the Bronze Age (7000 BCE), the Minoan culture flourished from 3000 BCE to 1400 BCE. It was a highly organized society with a mercantile economy that traded throughout the Mediterranean. There is evidence that Minoan culture participated in the arts, crafts, metalworking, pottery, and wall paintings, with nature having a logical order and there was a desire to live in harmony with it.
Minoan Medicine
There is diverse flora throughout Crete, which flourished in the mild climate. Distillation equipment and jars were found with the organic residue of many herbs, including Lavender, Laurel, Sage, Rosemary, Coriander, Cumin, Dittany, Rue, Saffron, Safflower, Anise, Verbena, Aleppo pine
Minoan Medicine
There is diverse flora throughout Crete, which flourished in the mild climate. Distillation equipment and jars were found with the organic residue of many herbs, including Lavender, Laurel, Sage, Rosemary, Coriander, Cumin, Dittany, Rue, Saffron, Safflower, Anise, Verbena, Aleppo pine
Mythological Period
The Ancient Greek religion was polytheistic, which shifted from a Mother Goddess, equal or more matriarchal culture, to a Father of gods and men, Zeus, or a patriarchal culture.
There were the Twelve Olympians or 'great gods' and a myriad of lesser gods and goddesses, divinities, demigods, nymphs, etc.
Olympian God’s
Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus.
Mythological Medicine
The causes of disease were seen as angered or displeased Gods or could also be due to the seasons.
Many Gods were associated with medicine and health
Dissection was not practiced, but many aspects of anatomy were known, likely from military surgeons from the prior war period
The life force, thumos, was in all parts of the living organism and was maintained by both external factors and the internal body environment.
Soul or individual personality, psyche, was the spirit that went to the underworld after death
The Three Classes
The three classes of 'medical' practitioners at that time include the following:
Physican-seers (iatromantis)- combined magical cures with drug treatments.
Wound healers- worked primarily with battlefield injuries.
Dieticians- responded originally to the nutrition needs of athletes. They ultimately dealt with exercise, bathing and relaxation as well as regulation of food and drink for the general public.
There were the Twelve Olympians or 'great gods' and a myriad of lesser gods and goddesses, divinities, demigods, nymphs, etc.
Olympian God’s
Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus.
Mythological Medicine
The causes of disease were seen as angered or displeased Gods or could also be due to the seasons.
Many Gods were associated with medicine and health
Dissection was not practiced, but many aspects of anatomy were known, likely from military surgeons from the prior war period
The life force, thumos, was in all parts of the living organism and was maintained by both external factors and the internal body environment.
Soul or individual personality, psyche, was the spirit that went to the underworld after death
The Three Classes
The three classes of 'medical' practitioners at that time include the following:
Physican-seers (iatromantis)- combined magical cures with drug treatments.
Wound healers- worked primarily with battlefield injuries.
Dieticians- responded originally to the nutrition needs of athletes. They ultimately dealt with exercise, bathing and relaxation as well as regulation of food and drink for the general public.
Pre-Hippocratic Period
History
The Pre-Hippocratic Period is characterised by the philosopher-scientists who focused on concepts and theories which were not generally tested but were entertained as likely explanations of what could be observed.
Early figures in this period started actively discussing the elements in nature, the balance of opposing forces in nature, and universal natural laws.
Pre-Hippocratic Medicine
By the 6th century BCE, four basic elements had become generally accepted as the components of all substances: water, earth, fire, and air, each of which had corresponding characteristics- wet, dry, hot, cold.
This doctrine of the four elements and their qualities (later projected into the four humours) continued to affect medical theory and practice for many centuries.
The Pre-Hippocratic Period is characterised by the philosopher-scientists who focused on concepts and theories which were not generally tested but were entertained as likely explanations of what could be observed.
Early figures in this period started actively discussing the elements in nature, the balance of opposing forces in nature, and universal natural laws.
Pre-Hippocratic Medicine
By the 6th century BCE, four basic elements had become generally accepted as the components of all substances: water, earth, fire, and air, each of which had corresponding characteristics- wet, dry, hot, cold.
This doctrine of the four elements and their qualities (later projected into the four humours) continued to affect medical theory and practice for many centuries.
Pythagoras
Pythagoras, most well-known in modern times as a mathematician, sparked many theories in medicine and spirituality.
His followers, the Pythagoreans, were very focused on the nature of the soul, believing that humans were fallen gods who could return to divinity, and that the soul could be reborn when the body dies.
Pythagoreans believed that balance in all things was the goal of correct behaviour.
The chief therapies consisted of a frugal vegetarian diet, exercise, music, and meditation. All life was sacred, and surgical procedures were forbidden since they might interfere with the soul.
Alcmaeon, said to be a student of Pythagoras, was a philosopher-scientist who focused more extensively on the body, whilst also studying astrology and meteorology. His book, 'Concerning Nature', may be the beginning of Greek medical literature, but only a few fragments survive.
Empedocles, who followed Pythagorean doctrines of purity of mind, body and behaviour, as well as regulating temperature, diet and exercise, was an esteemed and accomplished philosopher-scientist in a wide number of areas.
He was widely credited with establishing the theory of the four elements of nature: air, fire, earth, and water.
The elements, according to Empedocles, are joined together during life and separated after death. Substances are formed by attraction and repulsion of the elements in different proportions.
He associated the qualities of heat, cold, dryness and moisture with the elements, and described conditions of health and disease in the human body using these qualities.
His followers, the Pythagoreans, were very focused on the nature of the soul, believing that humans were fallen gods who could return to divinity, and that the soul could be reborn when the body dies.
Pythagoreans believed that balance in all things was the goal of correct behaviour.
The chief therapies consisted of a frugal vegetarian diet, exercise, music, and meditation. All life was sacred, and surgical procedures were forbidden since they might interfere with the soul.
Alcmaeon, said to be a student of Pythagoras, was a philosopher-scientist who focused more extensively on the body, whilst also studying astrology and meteorology. His book, 'Concerning Nature', may be the beginning of Greek medical literature, but only a few fragments survive.
Empedocles, who followed Pythagorean doctrines of purity of mind, body and behaviour, as well as regulating temperature, diet and exercise, was an esteemed and accomplished philosopher-scientist in a wide number of areas.
He was widely credited with establishing the theory of the four elements of nature: air, fire, earth, and water.
The elements, according to Empedocles, are joined together during life and separated after death. Substances are formed by attraction and repulsion of the elements in different proportions.
He associated the qualities of heat, cold, dryness and moisture with the elements, and described conditions of health and disease in the human body using these qualities.
Hippocratic Period
Hippocrates of Cos was a physician who lived from 450 BCE to 380 BCE. His writings, which are more substantial and/or have survived better than those of earlier times, are attributed to him and to the writings of his students and followers, as was often the case in that period of history
Hippocratic Medicine
Hippocrates focused on the importance of a physician observing their patient, being attentive to signs and symptoms of illness and recording those in detail.
Facial appearance, pulse, temperature, rate of breathing, and quality of various bodily fluids, as well as body movement, were considered important to record, along with the subjective report of the patient of their symptoms. This is considered the beginning of an analytical approach to medicine in the West.
Humoral Causation
Humoral Causation of illness posits the theory that the four elements in nature and their qualities combine to make up four 'humours' in the body:
Blood- humour of Air, which is hot and wet
Yellow bile- the humour of Fire, which is hot and dry
Black bile—the humour of Earth, which is cold and dry
Phlegm- the humour of Water, which is cold and wet
Disease
Hippocrates first noted disease as a process
Series of stages with a predictable outcome
Each stage generally took a certain period of time to run its course
Through each stage, there was a series of changes as the symptoms became associated with certain stages
Some diseases were believed capable of changing into another disease
Treatments
Primary treatments include supporting the natural healing force using the following: good diet, rest, fresh air, leaving the illness to run its course in a clean, calm environment.
Another treatment/prevention was good hygiene, including therapeutic bathing in mineral springs and other water treatments.
Massage
Use of a small range of very powerful plant medicines, primarily for purging and emesis to assist the body in removing 'morbid materials', e.g., humours in excess state.
Balneotherapy
Balneotherapy (baths) is healing through bathing in thermal springs or water containing medicinal components.
Systematic use of water treatments began with Hippocrates, establishing bathing as autonomous branch of therapeutics.
Hippocratic Medicine
Hippocrates focused on the importance of a physician observing their patient, being attentive to signs and symptoms of illness and recording those in detail.
Facial appearance, pulse, temperature, rate of breathing, and quality of various bodily fluids, as well as body movement, were considered important to record, along with the subjective report of the patient of their symptoms. This is considered the beginning of an analytical approach to medicine in the West.
Humoral Causation
Humoral Causation of illness posits the theory that the four elements in nature and their qualities combine to make up four 'humours' in the body:
Blood- humour of Air, which is hot and wet
Yellow bile- the humour of Fire, which is hot and dry
Black bile—the humour of Earth, which is cold and dry
Phlegm- the humour of Water, which is cold and wet
Disease
Hippocrates first noted disease as a process
Series of stages with a predictable outcome
Each stage generally took a certain period of time to run its course
Through each stage, there was a series of changes as the symptoms became associated with certain stages
Some diseases were believed capable of changing into another disease
Treatments
Primary treatments include supporting the natural healing force using the following: good diet, rest, fresh air, leaving the illness to run its course in a clean, calm environment.
Another treatment/prevention was good hygiene, including therapeutic bathing in mineral springs and other water treatments.
Massage
Use of a small range of very powerful plant medicines, primarily for purging and emesis to assist the body in removing 'morbid materials', e.g., humours in excess state.
Balneotherapy
Balneotherapy (baths) is healing through bathing in thermal springs or water containing medicinal components.
Systematic use of water treatments began with Hippocrates, establishing bathing as autonomous branch of therapeutics.
Post-Hippocratic Period
This was when the Roman Empire overtook Greece in the 3rd century BCE. Prior to that, after the death of Alexander the Great, the major center of Greek medicine had shifted to Alexandria, which was part of Greece at that time.
Aristotle, who was the son of a physician and pupil of Plato, a contemporary of Hippocrates, was a philosopher who had influence on later medicine and the formation of separate medical systems or 'sects'.
Alexandrian Medicine
The 'university' at the Alexandrian Museum was multi-disciplinary, including mathematics, engineering, art and language.
Medical research in the Alexandrian Museum developed a reputation that lasted into the common era.
In the Alexandrian centre of medicine, dissection of human corpses became an accepted method of investigation for the first time in Western history.
The five major medical sects formed around the 4th century BCE and extended well into the Christian era:
Dogmatists
Empiricists
Methodists
Pneumatists
Eclectics
Aristotle, who was the son of a physician and pupil of Plato, a contemporary of Hippocrates, was a philosopher who had influence on later medicine and the formation of separate medical systems or 'sects'.
Alexandrian Medicine
The 'university' at the Alexandrian Museum was multi-disciplinary, including mathematics, engineering, art and language.
Medical research in the Alexandrian Museum developed a reputation that lasted into the common era.
In the Alexandrian centre of medicine, dissection of human corpses became an accepted method of investigation for the first time in Western history.
The five major medical sects formed around the 4th century BCE and extended well into the Christian era:
Dogmatists
Empiricists
Methodists
Pneumatists
Eclectics
Roman Medicine
Early on in Rome, unlike Greece, there was not much specialised medical knowledge, but household use of traditional home remedies.
Public health measures and hygiene were key, and Rome had much in the way of engineering to move clean water and sewage, including flushing toilets.
Public baths and other health measures that were seen in the Asclepian healing temples in Greece were widely used. Military bases often had bathhouses as well.
As they were building an empire, most doctors were deployed to take care of the army, with a focus on wounded soldiers.
Dioscórides
Born in 30 CE, Dioscórides is considered the Father of Pharmacy.
He travelled widely through the known world cataloguing plants and other medicinal substances. He was the first to describe actions of herbs in physiological terms rather than humoral and to group plants by their medicinal actions.
His famous work De Materia Medica is a compendium of over 600 medicinal plants.
Galen
Galen was a physician and prolific writer who lived from 130 CE to 201 CE. He had the greatest influence on medicine since Hippocrates himself.
He trained in Alexandria, but the rest of his life was spent as a court physician in Rome. The notion which he adopted of Hippocrates was 'the humours' and his focus on observation.
Hygiene
Galen wrote a book series called Hygiene in the late second century CE. This series achieved the following:
United professional health theory, Greek medical thought and pragmatic Roman farm hygiene
Set out ways of maintaining equilibrium through changes in age, diet, seasons and exposures
Emphasized prevention, with a focus on knowing what foods are right for a person’s constitution, when baths are appropriate, what exercise is appropriate, how to manage an individual’s environment and when purgation was called for
Galen made major contributions to the understanding of anatomy and physiology through both observation and experimentation—critical empiricism.
He was experienced in surgery as a doctor to the gladiators, but also organised the diet of the gladiators around Hippocratic ideas. His writings combine much accurate and astute physiological, anatomical and therapeutic information, along with speculation that later proved untrue but was nonetheless followed. His theories became dogmatically followed in medicine for the next 1,500 years
The Four Temperaments
Galen associated temperament to the humours as well, which is the first we see in Western medical thought of connecting body and mind through personality typing:
Sanguine—associated with Air/Blood
Choleric—associated with Yellow Bile/Fire
Melancholic—associated with Black Bile/Earth
Phlegmatic—associated with Phlegm/Water
Public health measures and hygiene were key, and Rome had much in the way of engineering to move clean water and sewage, including flushing toilets.
Public baths and other health measures that were seen in the Asclepian healing temples in Greece were widely used. Military bases often had bathhouses as well.
As they were building an empire, most doctors were deployed to take care of the army, with a focus on wounded soldiers.
Dioscórides
Born in 30 CE, Dioscórides is considered the Father of Pharmacy.
He travelled widely through the known world cataloguing plants and other medicinal substances. He was the first to describe actions of herbs in physiological terms rather than humoral and to group plants by their medicinal actions.
His famous work De Materia Medica is a compendium of over 600 medicinal plants.
Galen
Galen was a physician and prolific writer who lived from 130 CE to 201 CE. He had the greatest influence on medicine since Hippocrates himself.
He trained in Alexandria, but the rest of his life was spent as a court physician in Rome. The notion which he adopted of Hippocrates was 'the humours' and his focus on observation.
Hygiene
Galen wrote a book series called Hygiene in the late second century CE. This series achieved the following:
United professional health theory, Greek medical thought and pragmatic Roman farm hygiene
Set out ways of maintaining equilibrium through changes in age, diet, seasons and exposures
Emphasized prevention, with a focus on knowing what foods are right for a person’s constitution, when baths are appropriate, what exercise is appropriate, how to manage an individual’s environment and when purgation was called for
Galen made major contributions to the understanding of anatomy and physiology through both observation and experimentation—critical empiricism.
He was experienced in surgery as a doctor to the gladiators, but also organised the diet of the gladiators around Hippocratic ideas. His writings combine much accurate and astute physiological, anatomical and therapeutic information, along with speculation that later proved untrue but was nonetheless followed. His theories became dogmatically followed in medicine for the next 1,500 years
The Four Temperaments
Galen associated temperament to the humours as well, which is the first we see in Western medical thought of connecting body and mind through personality typing:
Sanguine—associated with Air/Blood
Choleric—associated with Yellow Bile/Fire
Melancholic—associated with Black Bile/Earth
Phlegmatic—associated with Phlegm/Water
Byzantine Empire
Transmission of Knowledge
Classical Greco-Roman culture, science, and philosophy was preserved in the Byzantine Empire whilst it dissipated in Western Europe.
Women did in fact participate in the intellectual life of the culture. The greatest Byzantine writer was a female historian named Anna Comnené.
Medicine
During this time there was a re-invigoration of historical Greco-Roman medicine and texts.
It was also the first culture in which church and state hospitals widely flourished, and with walk-in dispensaries, formed the hubs of medicine.
Charitable and monastic medicine played key roles in medicine and the monastery libraries were key to copying and preserving classical knowledge.
Classical Greco-Roman culture, science, and philosophy was preserved in the Byzantine Empire whilst it dissipated in Western Europe.
Women did in fact participate in the intellectual life of the culture. The greatest Byzantine writer was a female historian named Anna Comnené.
Medicine
During this time there was a re-invigoration of historical Greco-Roman medicine and texts.
It was also the first culture in which church and state hospitals widely flourished, and with walk-in dispensaries, formed the hubs of medicine.
Charitable and monastic medicine played key roles in medicine and the monastery libraries were key to copying and preserving classical knowledge.
Middle East
Persian, Arabic & Jewish
One of the oldest civilizations to ever exist in the world, many do not know just how much the Persian culture of the ancient world has helped to advance medicine today. When other cultures crumbled, losing much of their wisdom and traditions, the Middle Eastern philosophers kept the libraries. They saved crucial texts used to advance our understanding of ancient cultures, like the Greeks and Romans.
Persian
The Persian Empire is historically like Indian culture and spirituality.
The main religion at the time was Zoroastrianism, which is connected somewhat to the Vedas and Egyptian symbology.
At the time the cosmology was seen that the world was a battlefield, and man was seen as a microcosm of that.
They had concepts of soul, afterlife, judgment, heaven and hell, and free will.
Persian Medicine
Persian medicine saw the human body as a microcosm of the Universe and understood it in relation to the external world.
Human dissection was practiced and had a major contribution to the development of science.
This time was influenced by pre-Hippocratic Greek and Syrian philosophies.
In the 3rd century CE, the first university teaching hospital was established in southwest Persia.
The main religion at the time was Zoroastrianism, which is connected somewhat to the Vedas and Egyptian symbology.
At the time the cosmology was seen that the world was a battlefield, and man was seen as a microcosm of that.
They had concepts of soul, afterlife, judgment, heaven and hell, and free will.
Persian Medicine
Persian medicine saw the human body as a microcosm of the Universe and understood it in relation to the external world.
Human dissection was practiced and had a major contribution to the development of science.
This time was influenced by pre-Hippocratic Greek and Syrian philosophies.
In the 3rd century CE, the first university teaching hospital was established in southwest Persia.
Islam
Religion and Culture
Muhammed was viewed as a third prophet following on from Moses and Jesus. This brought restoration to monotheistic Abrahamic faith. Writings of the Qur'an and Hadith (‘wise sayings’) were closely followed by his adherents.
The Islamic Empire was a powerful and wealthy empire- great cities were built, extensive trade routes were established, as well as schools, universities and mosques.
Bathhouses were a part of the culture, as the Qur'an emphasized hygiene and cleanliness.
Islam also strongly emphasized the importance of learning, and books were highly valued.
Muhammed was viewed as a third prophet following on from Moses and Jesus. This brought restoration to monotheistic Abrahamic faith. Writings of the Qur'an and Hadith (‘wise sayings’) were closely followed by his adherents.
The Islamic Empire was a powerful and wealthy empire- great cities were built, extensive trade routes were established, as well as schools, universities and mosques.
Bathhouses were a part of the culture, as the Qur'an emphasized hygiene and cleanliness.
Islam also strongly emphasized the importance of learning, and books were highly valued.
Transmission of Knowledge
Arabic scholars were the major bridge for transmission of ancient Greco-Roman philosophy and medicine to Europe leading into the Middle Ages.
Many texts would have been lost forever if not for Arabic translations that were eventually translated into Latin and other European languages.
Developments in Science
Persian Arabic physicians were influenced by Byzantine, Indian, Chinese, and other areas of the Islamic empire.
There is evidence that Persian physicians were involved in human dissection, which was strictly forbidden.
The Qu’ran describes the process of embryogenesis, including the development of organs.
Many texts would have been lost forever if not for Arabic translations that were eventually translated into Latin and other European languages.
Developments in Science
Persian Arabic physicians were influenced by Byzantine, Indian, Chinese, and other areas of the Islamic empire.
There is evidence that Persian physicians were involved in human dissection, which was strictly forbidden.
The Qu’ran describes the process of embryogenesis, including the development of organs.
Alchemy
Knowledge and practices in alchemy were centered around how to prepare medicines.
The Islamic Empire named and characterized many different substances, some of which had medicinal value. Many drugs now in use are of Arabic origin, as well as processes such as distillation and sublimation.
The Islamic Empire named and characterized many different substances, some of which had medicinal value. Many drugs now in use are of Arabic origin, as well as processes such as distillation and sublimation.
Arabic Medicine
Arabic towns and cities had hospitals, often more than one.
Doctors, once trained, were given a license to practice
Doctors were a mix of Muslims, Jews and Christians, and not all were native to the region
Surgeons were held in lower regard than physicians
The Unani-Tibb translates to- Unani = “Greek/Ionian” and Tibb = “medicine”.
Unani-Tibb is the system of medicine that developed during Arab civilisation out of the Greek system of humoral medicine.
Doctors, once trained, were given a license to practice
Doctors were a mix of Muslims, Jews and Christians, and not all were native to the region
Surgeons were held in lower regard than physicians
The Unani-Tibb translates to- Unani = “Greek/Ionian” and Tibb = “medicine”.
Unani-Tibb is the system of medicine that developed during Arab civilisation out of the Greek system of humoral medicine.
The Four Temperaments
The temperaments are an individual’s physical constitution, susceptibilities and tendencies within an elemental framework. The temperaments are as follows:
Sanguine- Air/Blood
Choleric- Yellow Bile/Fire
Melancholic- Black Bile/Earth
Phlegmatic- Phlegm/Water
Temperaments
The temperament of a person is the dominant humour in their body
Imbalance in temperament predisposes the body and mind to various diseases
Air, water, food, rest, activity, work, elimination of wastes, sleep, etc. will influence balance or imbalance of temperament
Drugs and foods are also classified by their temperament and will have specific influence on the balance of the humours based on that classification
Healing Principles
The six essential factors for temperament include the following:
Ambient air
Food and drink
Physical activity and rest
Emotions and feelings
Sleep and wakefulness
Retention of fluids and evacuation of waste
The gentlest treatments possible were used to restore the balance of the humours.
Sanguine- Air/Blood
Choleric- Yellow Bile/Fire
Melancholic- Black Bile/Earth
Phlegmatic- Phlegm/Water
Temperaments
The temperament of a person is the dominant humour in their body
Imbalance in temperament predisposes the body and mind to various diseases
Air, water, food, rest, activity, work, elimination of wastes, sleep, etc. will influence balance or imbalance of temperament
Drugs and foods are also classified by their temperament and will have specific influence on the balance of the humours based on that classification
Healing Principles
The six essential factors for temperament include the following:
Ambient air
Food and drink
Physical activity and rest
Emotions and feelings
Sleep and wakefulness
Retention of fluids and evacuation of waste
The gentlest treatments possible were used to restore the balance of the humours.
Jewish
Jewish History
Jewish history stems from the history of the ancient Israelites as recounted in the Bible.
The origins of Jewish history dates back to 2000 CE.
Their history is centered in Israel and surrounding lands, but with cultural interaction with a wide variety of other early civilizations, including Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greco-Roman
Culture and Religion
There was a strong belief in obedience to God’s law, as told through Moses and documented in the Torah, in all aspects of communal and individual life.
All behaviour, as well as law, social customs, diet, ethics and medicine, are tied to religious laws and based on the concept of a personal and communal relationship with God.
Jewish history stems from the history of the ancient Israelites as recounted in the Bible.
The origins of Jewish history dates back to 2000 CE.
Their history is centered in Israel and surrounding lands, but with cultural interaction with a wide variety of other early civilizations, including Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greco-Roman
Culture and Religion
There was a strong belief in obedience to God’s law, as told through Moses and documented in the Torah, in all aspects of communal and individual life.
All behaviour, as well as law, social customs, diet, ethics and medicine, are tied to religious laws and based on the concept of a personal and communal relationship with God.
Traditional Jewish Medicine
The Old Testament contains references to quarantine and health protection, sanitary regulations on meat handling, rapid burial processes and social hygiene.
Midwives are mentioned as well as physicians. The Treatments mentioned include healing waters and bathing, anointing with oils, wine, balms and medicinal compresses, and splinting fractures, as well as health benefits of music. Medicinal plant resins of gum, balm and laudanum (opium) are mentioned, as well as myrrh, cassia, cinnamon and hyssop.
Traditional Jewish Herbalism
St John's Wort: used as a diuretic and expectorant
Fennel: for abdominal disorders and threatened miscarriage
Sage: as a cure for paralysis and to aid digestion (mixed with saltpeter, bay and cinnamon)
Midwives are mentioned as well as physicians. The Treatments mentioned include healing waters and bathing, anointing with oils, wine, balms and medicinal compresses, and splinting fractures, as well as health benefits of music. Medicinal plant resins of gum, balm and laudanum (opium) are mentioned, as well as myrrh, cassia, cinnamon and hyssop.
Traditional Jewish Herbalism
St John's Wort: used as a diuretic and expectorant
Fennel: for abdominal disorders and threatened miscarriage
Sage: as a cure for paralysis and to aid digestion (mixed with saltpeter, bay and cinnamon)
Jewish Medicine Today
Most medicines were from plants and trees, including oils
Most important animal medicine is honey
Many common foods used as medicines
Drugs prepared by cooking, pulverising to powders, or making into salves or poultices
Healing Principles
The healing principles at the time include the following:
Sympathy: a variant on “like cures like”
Contact: objects in contact with each other continue to influence after contact ends
Antipathy: an object or substance that drives something else away
Healing Rituals
The healing rituals in Jewish history, include the following:
Recitation of passages from the Torah; prayer
Repetition of treatments a certain number of times
Transferring an illness from one person to another object or being
Preservation of Germanic magical cures
Changing a person’s name
Healing Waters
The use of natural springs and other healing waters was a well-known healing modality.
The hot springs of Tiberias on the shore of the Sea of Galilee are famous for their healing properties.
Most important animal medicine is honey
Many common foods used as medicines
Drugs prepared by cooking, pulverising to powders, or making into salves or poultices
Healing Principles
The healing principles at the time include the following:
Sympathy: a variant on “like cures like”
Contact: objects in contact with each other continue to influence after contact ends
Antipathy: an object or substance that drives something else away
Healing Rituals
The healing rituals in Jewish history, include the following:
Recitation of passages from the Torah; prayer
Repetition of treatments a certain number of times
Transferring an illness from one person to another object or being
Preservation of Germanic magical cures
Changing a person’s name
Healing Waters
The use of natural springs and other healing waters was a well-known healing modality.
The hot springs of Tiberias on the shore of the Sea of Galilee are famous for their healing properties.
Baltics & Nordics
Norse & Viking
Norse Paganism is a religious movement based on the practices and beliefs of pre-Christian Scandinavia. Beginning with the Germanic peoples of the Iron Age, Norse Paganism is an old polytheistic religion that has many parallels with other Germanic societies, and yet, its pantheon of gods, goddesses, and spirits of nature is one of the most famous in the world today.
Vikings
The most common aspect of Norse Paganism and Scandinavian culture is that of the Vikings, a prolific group representing the warrior classes of the Norse that have a prolific reputation across European history. The Vikings of the Scandinavian culture worshipped many of the God’s and Goddesses that make up modern Norse mythology today.
The Viking Age was a time of great religious change across Scandinavia, as the Vikings raided their neighboring cultures, it began to spread other religions through new trade routes and blending of cultures.
The term Viking is often confused with Scandinavian culture, as many believe the Vikings were the Scandinavian peoples. However, to be a Viking was a profession, which applied only to those who took to the sea for the purpose of raiding other lands to acquire wealth.
The Viking Age was a time of great religious change across Scandinavia, as the Vikings raided their neighboring cultures, it began to spread other religions through new trade routes and blending of cultures.
The term Viking is often confused with Scandinavian culture, as many believe the Vikings were the Scandinavian peoples. However, to be a Viking was a profession, which applied only to those who took to the sea for the purpose of raiding other lands to acquire wealth.
Norse
Norse pagans believe that nature is sacred, and that spiritual enlightenment comes through the natural cycles of birth, growth and death. They believed and still believe today that human beings are one part of nature, together with animals, trees, stones, and everything on earth.
The center piece of Norse mythology is a set of religious stories that gave meaning to Viking lives, with the myths revolving around God’s and Goddesses like Odin, Thor, Freya and Loki.
The religion itself never had a true name, at the time, it was just seen as a tradition, and yet, it has captured the minds and hearts of human cultures hundreds of years later.
Each Deity represents a different aspect of life, characteristics, elements, natural states and more.
In old Norse Paganism, there are three distinct clans that make up the deities; The Aesir and Vanir who once warred with each other until they achieved peace, intermarried and reigned together.
And the Jotun; a race of giants seen as both malefic and wise, who represented the primary adversaries of the Aesir and Vanir.
The Aesir represents war and conquest, while the Vanir represents exploration, fertility and wealth, though there is much that can be interchanged between the two.
The center piece of Norse mythology is a set of religious stories that gave meaning to Viking lives, with the myths revolving around God’s and Goddesses like Odin, Thor, Freya and Loki.
The religion itself never had a true name, at the time, it was just seen as a tradition, and yet, it has captured the minds and hearts of human cultures hundreds of years later.
Each Deity represents a different aspect of life, characteristics, elements, natural states and more.
In old Norse Paganism, there are three distinct clans that make up the deities; The Aesir and Vanir who once warred with each other until they achieved peace, intermarried and reigned together.
And the Jotun; a race of giants seen as both malefic and wise, who represented the primary adversaries of the Aesir and Vanir.
The Aesir represents war and conquest, while the Vanir represents exploration, fertility and wealth, though there is much that can be interchanged between the two.
Yggdrasil
The World Tree
History: Yggdrasil is an immense tree that encompasses the cosmology and mythology of ancient Norse paganism. The branches reach far into the heavens, with three roots supporting the tree that extend into the well of Urðarbrunnr, the spring of Hvergelmir and the well of Mímisbrunnr. The Norns, female entities who spin the threads of fate draw the waters from Urðarbrunnr which they pour over Yggdrasil. It is believed to have sprung from the primordial void of Ginnungagap and unifies the nine worlds of Asgard:
Álfheimr/Ljósálfheimr, Niðavellir/Svartálfaheimr, Midgard (Earth), Jötunheimr/Útgarðr, Vanaheim, Niflheim, Muspelheim & Hel.
Another realm to explore is the afterlife of the Norse pagans which is Valhalla, which we will also explore below, along with the cataclysmic events that make up Ragnarök.
Important Note: the existence of the nine worlds is described often in old Norse sources. However, the nature of these worlds is sometimes exaggerated in later writings that many refer to today and they can vary in description from writer to writer.
Asgard: Home of the Aesir and ruling Gods of the Norse pantheon, Asgard is said to be a realm of fertile lands and blessed with gold and jewels which is ruled over by Odin, the All-father. It is also the location of Valhalla, or “Hall of the Slain”, where dead Vikings would join their fellow fallen warriors to feast and fight until the day of Ragnarök.
Álfheimr/Ljósálfheimr: “The Land of the Elves”, ruled by the goddess Freya, Álfheimr is the realm of the light elves, described as ‘more beautiful than the sun’.
Niðavellir/Svartálfaheimr: The realm of the dwarves, Niðavellir translates to ‘new moon’, and is home to a race of master smiths who created the incredible weapons and armors we often see the Aesir wearing in their depictions. There are also references to Niðavellir being a realm to the dark elves.
Midgard (Earth): The most familiar to us as the realm of mankind, it is surrounded by an impassable ocean and encircled by the great sea serpent Jörmungandr. The gods travel to Midgard using the rainbow bridge known as the ‘Bifröst’ that ends in heaven at Himinbjörg, the residence of the god Heimdallr. According to ancient texts, Midgard will be destroyed in Ragnarök where the great serpent Jörmungandr will rise from the ocean, poisoning the land and sea and creating tidal waves that will wash over the land. When the land has fallen to the sea, and Ragnarök has come to its end, Midgard will rise again in a new creation cycle.
Jötunheimr/Útgarðr: Home to the Jötnar, the giants in Norse mythology, the realm is described ‘forever in winter’, and is the place where Odin sacrificed his eye to attain wisdom at the well of Mímisbrunnr.
Vanaheim: Home to a group of gods known as the Vanir, they were once an opposing group of gods to the Aesir until after a great war settled matters and the Vanir became a subgroup of the Aesir. These gods were most known for their wisdom, fertility blessings and ability to see the future. Some examples of Vanir gods that now reside with the Aesir are Njord, Freya and Freyr.
Niflheim: translated to ‘Abode of Mist’ or ‘Mist World’, Niflheim was one of the first worlds or realms to emanate out of Ginnungagap and is a realm of primordial ice.
Muspelheim: realm of fire and the first elemental world to come from the void of Ginnungagap, this realm belongs to Surtr, a jötunn giant who plays a major role in the events of Ragnarök as it is the flames he brings that will engulf Midgard.
Helheim/ Hel: This is the Norse underworld for the dead that is ruled by the deity Hel/ Hela. Unlike other depictions of hell, Hel is simply a place for one to continue their journey, in neither bliss nor torment.
History: Yggdrasil is an immense tree that encompasses the cosmology and mythology of ancient Norse paganism. The branches reach far into the heavens, with three roots supporting the tree that extend into the well of Urðarbrunnr, the spring of Hvergelmir and the well of Mímisbrunnr. The Norns, female entities who spin the threads of fate draw the waters from Urðarbrunnr which they pour over Yggdrasil. It is believed to have sprung from the primordial void of Ginnungagap and unifies the nine worlds of Asgard:
Álfheimr/Ljósálfheimr, Niðavellir/Svartálfaheimr, Midgard (Earth), Jötunheimr/Útgarðr, Vanaheim, Niflheim, Muspelheim & Hel.
Another realm to explore is the afterlife of the Norse pagans which is Valhalla, which we will also explore below, along with the cataclysmic events that make up Ragnarök.
Important Note: the existence of the nine worlds is described often in old Norse sources. However, the nature of these worlds is sometimes exaggerated in later writings that many refer to today and they can vary in description from writer to writer.
Asgard: Home of the Aesir and ruling Gods of the Norse pantheon, Asgard is said to be a realm of fertile lands and blessed with gold and jewels which is ruled over by Odin, the All-father. It is also the location of Valhalla, or “Hall of the Slain”, where dead Vikings would join their fellow fallen warriors to feast and fight until the day of Ragnarök.
Álfheimr/Ljósálfheimr: “The Land of the Elves”, ruled by the goddess Freya, Álfheimr is the realm of the light elves, described as ‘more beautiful than the sun’.
Niðavellir/Svartálfaheimr: The realm of the dwarves, Niðavellir translates to ‘new moon’, and is home to a race of master smiths who created the incredible weapons and armors we often see the Aesir wearing in their depictions. There are also references to Niðavellir being a realm to the dark elves.
Midgard (Earth): The most familiar to us as the realm of mankind, it is surrounded by an impassable ocean and encircled by the great sea serpent Jörmungandr. The gods travel to Midgard using the rainbow bridge known as the ‘Bifröst’ that ends in heaven at Himinbjörg, the residence of the god Heimdallr. According to ancient texts, Midgard will be destroyed in Ragnarök where the great serpent Jörmungandr will rise from the ocean, poisoning the land and sea and creating tidal waves that will wash over the land. When the land has fallen to the sea, and Ragnarök has come to its end, Midgard will rise again in a new creation cycle.
Jötunheimr/Útgarðr: Home to the Jötnar, the giants in Norse mythology, the realm is described ‘forever in winter’, and is the place where Odin sacrificed his eye to attain wisdom at the well of Mímisbrunnr.
Vanaheim: Home to a group of gods known as the Vanir, they were once an opposing group of gods to the Aesir until after a great war settled matters and the Vanir became a subgroup of the Aesir. These gods were most known for their wisdom, fertility blessings and ability to see the future. Some examples of Vanir gods that now reside with the Aesir are Njord, Freya and Freyr.
Niflheim: translated to ‘Abode of Mist’ or ‘Mist World’, Niflheim was one of the first worlds or realms to emanate out of Ginnungagap and is a realm of primordial ice.
Muspelheim: realm of fire and the first elemental world to come from the void of Ginnungagap, this realm belongs to Surtr, a jötunn giant who plays a major role in the events of Ragnarök as it is the flames he brings that will engulf Midgard.
Helheim/ Hel: This is the Norse underworld for the dead that is ruled by the deity Hel/ Hela. Unlike other depictions of hell, Hel is simply a place for one to continue their journey, in neither bliss nor torment.
Odin (Aesir)
The All Father
History: The ruler of Asgard and supreme deity of Norse Mythology, Odin was known for his unrelenting quest for knowledge with his two ravens, two wolves and the Valkyries. God of War, Poetry and Magic, he is most known for sacrificing one of his eyes so he could see the cosmos more clearly and by being hung from the World Tree Yggdrasil for nine days and nights so he could attain unlimited knowledge.
Depictions: A wizened old man with a long white beard, missing one eye, carrying a spear and wearing a wide brimmed hat and black cloak with hood, and is often accompanied by his two Ravens.
Symbols: One of his greatest Symbols was his knowledge of runes and the runic alphabet, so this is one of the easiest ways to communicate with Odin.
Omens: Ravens, Giant Ash Trees and Runes.
Offerings: Food and drink
Rituals: casting runes is an ancient practice to gain knowledge from Odin and other Gods in the Norse Pantheon. Meditating under a great ash tree is another way to hear the message of Odin, but above all, any pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the universe around us will connect you to the All-Father. You can also practice a day of fasting on a Wednesday while sitting out in nature and reading poetry is an old practice to commune with Odin.
History: The ruler of Asgard and supreme deity of Norse Mythology, Odin was known for his unrelenting quest for knowledge with his two ravens, two wolves and the Valkyries. God of War, Poetry and Magic, he is most known for sacrificing one of his eyes so he could see the cosmos more clearly and by being hung from the World Tree Yggdrasil for nine days and nights so he could attain unlimited knowledge.
Depictions: A wizened old man with a long white beard, missing one eye, carrying a spear and wearing a wide brimmed hat and black cloak with hood, and is often accompanied by his two Ravens.
Symbols: One of his greatest Symbols was his knowledge of runes and the runic alphabet, so this is one of the easiest ways to communicate with Odin.
Omens: Ravens, Giant Ash Trees and Runes.
Offerings: Food and drink
Rituals: casting runes is an ancient practice to gain knowledge from Odin and other Gods in the Norse Pantheon. Meditating under a great ash tree is another way to hear the message of Odin, but above all, any pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the universe around us will connect you to the All-Father. You can also practice a day of fasting on a Wednesday while sitting out in nature and reading poetry is an old practice to commune with Odin.
Frigg (Aesir)
Mother of Gods & Witches
History: As the wife of Oden, Frigg was seen as a paragon of beauty and love, as well as a messenger of fate. She was gifted with powers of divination, rumored in some legends to descend from ancient witches who taught her magic and divination. She is also a Goddess of protection, especially to women and mothers.
Freyja & Frigg: In many ways, these goddesses are seen as practically identical, with Freyja appearing as a younger version of Frigg. I personally see them as a dual aspect of one goddess, the lady (Freyja) and the mother (Frigg) with both playing a role in Norse pagan practices and worship.
Depictions: A tall, beautiful woman with a motherly appearance, and wearing a blue cape meant to symbolize the sky. Her appearance changes over time, but she is always associated with the beautiful feminine aspects of motherhood.
Symbols: feathers, eggs and silver
Omens: The Full Moon, Spinning Wheel and Mistletoe
Offerings: Birch tree cuttings, milk, pastries, clean spaces.
Rituals: best performed on a Friday as this day is named after the Goddess herself, you can simply clean your home, help others less fortunate (especially women) and enjoy a home cooked meal with family.
History: As the wife of Oden, Frigg was seen as a paragon of beauty and love, as well as a messenger of fate. She was gifted with powers of divination, rumored in some legends to descend from ancient witches who taught her magic and divination. She is also a Goddess of protection, especially to women and mothers.
Freyja & Frigg: In many ways, these goddesses are seen as practically identical, with Freyja appearing as a younger version of Frigg. I personally see them as a dual aspect of one goddess, the lady (Freyja) and the mother (Frigg) with both playing a role in Norse pagan practices and worship.
Depictions: A tall, beautiful woman with a motherly appearance, and wearing a blue cape meant to symbolize the sky. Her appearance changes over time, but she is always associated with the beautiful feminine aspects of motherhood.
Symbols: feathers, eggs and silver
Omens: The Full Moon, Spinning Wheel and Mistletoe
Offerings: Birch tree cuttings, milk, pastries, clean spaces.
Rituals: best performed on a Friday as this day is named after the Goddess herself, you can simply clean your home, help others less fortunate (especially women) and enjoy a home cooked meal with family.
Thor (Aesir)
God Of Thunder
History: As one of the most popular gods in the Norse pantheon, Thor is the first son of Odin and is the God of thunder and the sky. Thor is the defender of Asgard and Midgard and is associated with protection, with many tales old about his prowess over giants and his battle with the giant sea serpent Jörmungandr. In legend, Thor is doomed to die in Ragnarök, striking the killing blow against Jörmungandr before succumbing to its poison. However, his children would survive Ragnarök and inherit his hammer to restore order. His popularity reached its height in the Viking age, as he was considered a great rival to Christ, but even as Christianity swept over Scandinavia, the worship of Thor has endured into modern times, many still calling on him for protection and guidance in troubled times.
Depictions: A large, muscled man with red hair and a red beard, wielding his hammer Mjölnir. He can also be depicted driving his chariot which is pulled by two rams.
Symbols: Thors hammer, lightning bolts, chariot, runes (Thurisaz or Sowelo)
Omens: thunder and lightning storms
Offerings: goat symbols, rainwater, garlic, weapons, hammer figures, runes (Thurisaz or Sowelo), mead and goat meat.
Rituals: One of the greatest ways to honor Thor is to live your life with honor and bravery. Stepping out into nature in a thunderstorm, walking among the trees (especially Ash and Oak) barefoot while speaking with him is a great way to commune with the God and embrace the raw power of nature. Drawing or tattooing his runes on yourself can also be a way to connect with the god.
History: As one of the most popular gods in the Norse pantheon, Thor is the first son of Odin and is the God of thunder and the sky. Thor is the defender of Asgard and Midgard and is associated with protection, with many tales old about his prowess over giants and his battle with the giant sea serpent Jörmungandr. In legend, Thor is doomed to die in Ragnarök, striking the killing blow against Jörmungandr before succumbing to its poison. However, his children would survive Ragnarök and inherit his hammer to restore order. His popularity reached its height in the Viking age, as he was considered a great rival to Christ, but even as Christianity swept over Scandinavia, the worship of Thor has endured into modern times, many still calling on him for protection and guidance in troubled times.
Depictions: A large, muscled man with red hair and a red beard, wielding his hammer Mjölnir. He can also be depicted driving his chariot which is pulled by two rams.
Symbols: Thors hammer, lightning bolts, chariot, runes (Thurisaz or Sowelo)
Omens: thunder and lightning storms
Offerings: goat symbols, rainwater, garlic, weapons, hammer figures, runes (Thurisaz or Sowelo), mead and goat meat.
Rituals: One of the greatest ways to honor Thor is to live your life with honor and bravery. Stepping out into nature in a thunderstorm, walking among the trees (especially Ash and Oak) barefoot while speaking with him is a great way to commune with the God and embrace the raw power of nature. Drawing or tattooing his runes on yourself can also be a way to connect with the god.
Loki (Aesir)
God of Mischief
History: Son of a jötunn giant, Loki has many different depictions and legends among the Norse gods. Sometimes depicted as a helper to the Aesir, he is most often portrayed as a mischievous and even malicious character in Norse mythology that will kickstart Ragnarök. He has the ability to shapeshift, create monsters such as Fenrir (Large wolf that will eat Odin in Ragnarök) and the serpent Jörmungandr, and is most known for his part in the death of Baldr. For his part in the death of Baldr using a mistletoe dart, Loki was bound to a rock by the entrails of his own sons, a snake fastened above his head to drip poison onto his face. His wife Sigyn would catch the venom in a bowl, protecting Loki from harm until the day of Ragnarök where it is said that he breaks free and joins the jötunn giants in their battle against Asgard. His death comes at the hands of Heimdall as they kill each other during the events of Ragnarök.
Depictions: there are honestly too many to mention here! The most popular has become his imagery from the Marvel Comics, and yet as a shapeshifter who can change his gender, Loki is sometimes depicted as a giant snake, wolf and even a horse. In other depictions he is a slender man of angular features with a look of cunning and mischief in his eyes.
Symbols: two snakes encircling each other in the form of an S, wolves, snakes and the rune Kaunaz.
Offerings: Incense, dragons' blood resin, cinnamon, mulled wine, candy, apples, and any sweets you can find.
Rituals: while other gods have rituals and festivals tied to their practices, Loki is a little different. As he is not considered a ‘religious’ god, so direct communication can be facilitated with him through placing his offerings on an altar. Be warned, he is called the god of mischief for a reason, so if you call on him, you may start to notice strange things happening around your home and in your life. He has a wicked sense of humor and enjoys irony, so you may notice these patterns take form in your interactions with people and objects. You may notice in your communications with him that you will start to see a more fun side to life, playing innocent pranks and making people laugh are great values and tributes to him.
History: Son of a jötunn giant, Loki has many different depictions and legends among the Norse gods. Sometimes depicted as a helper to the Aesir, he is most often portrayed as a mischievous and even malicious character in Norse mythology that will kickstart Ragnarök. He has the ability to shapeshift, create monsters such as Fenrir (Large wolf that will eat Odin in Ragnarök) and the serpent Jörmungandr, and is most known for his part in the death of Baldr. For his part in the death of Baldr using a mistletoe dart, Loki was bound to a rock by the entrails of his own sons, a snake fastened above his head to drip poison onto his face. His wife Sigyn would catch the venom in a bowl, protecting Loki from harm until the day of Ragnarök where it is said that he breaks free and joins the jötunn giants in their battle against Asgard. His death comes at the hands of Heimdall as they kill each other during the events of Ragnarök.
Depictions: there are honestly too many to mention here! The most popular has become his imagery from the Marvel Comics, and yet as a shapeshifter who can change his gender, Loki is sometimes depicted as a giant snake, wolf and even a horse. In other depictions he is a slender man of angular features with a look of cunning and mischief in his eyes.
Symbols: two snakes encircling each other in the form of an S, wolves, snakes and the rune Kaunaz.
Offerings: Incense, dragons' blood resin, cinnamon, mulled wine, candy, apples, and any sweets you can find.
Rituals: while other gods have rituals and festivals tied to their practices, Loki is a little different. As he is not considered a ‘religious’ god, so direct communication can be facilitated with him through placing his offerings on an altar. Be warned, he is called the god of mischief for a reason, so if you call on him, you may start to notice strange things happening around your home and in your life. He has a wicked sense of humor and enjoys irony, so you may notice these patterns take form in your interactions with people and objects. You may notice in your communications with him that you will start to see a more fun side to life, playing innocent pranks and making people laugh are great values and tributes to him.
Freyja (Vanir)
Goddess of Love
History: The daughter of the Vanir god Njord and twin brother to Freyr, Freyja or Freya is a member of the Vanir gods and is one of the few Vanir to be incorporate in an honorary way into the Aesir Norse Pantheon, becoming the wife of Odin. Freyja is almost interchangeable with Odin’s first wife Frigg, and yet they do have some distinct differences. As Frigg is the goddess of motherhood, Freyja is more of a fertility goddess, associated with love, beauty and fine material possessions, which makes her a passionate feminine goddess in Norse mythology. Freyja was also known for her psychic and shamanistic powers and would be the archetype for the Volva; a practitioner of Norse magic called Seidr. As a volva, she had the power to see the future and weave new events into the tapestry of life. All volva who followed her were women, and would travel between villages to provide healing, psychic and Seidr magical acts in exchange for lodging and food.
Freyja & Frigg: In many ways, these goddesses are seen as practically identical, with Freyja appearing as a younger version of Frigg. I personally see them as a dual aspect of one goddess, the lady (Freyja) and the mother (Frigg) with both playing a role in Norse pagan practices and worship.
Depictions: A beautiful woman with golden hair, she is often depicted wearing a cloak of falcon feathers and wearing a boar's headdress.
Symbols: Pigs or boars, chariot pulled by two cats, the ‘Necklace of Brisings’, cats, rabbits and flowers.
Offerings: flowers, gold, amber, yellow/ green or pink candles, rose quartz, beautiful jewelry.
Rituals: a very easy way to connect with Freyja is to step out into nature, walk through the woods and flowers and to sit in meditation to ask for her guidance. As a goddess of fertility and magic, you can use her symbols to call on her assistance when performing spells around love, fertility and sexual liberation.
History: The daughter of the Vanir god Njord and twin brother to Freyr, Freyja or Freya is a member of the Vanir gods and is one of the few Vanir to be incorporate in an honorary way into the Aesir Norse Pantheon, becoming the wife of Odin. Freyja is almost interchangeable with Odin’s first wife Frigg, and yet they do have some distinct differences. As Frigg is the goddess of motherhood, Freyja is more of a fertility goddess, associated with love, beauty and fine material possessions, which makes her a passionate feminine goddess in Norse mythology. Freyja was also known for her psychic and shamanistic powers and would be the archetype for the Volva; a practitioner of Norse magic called Seidr. As a volva, she had the power to see the future and weave new events into the tapestry of life. All volva who followed her were women, and would travel between villages to provide healing, psychic and Seidr magical acts in exchange for lodging and food.
Freyja & Frigg: In many ways, these goddesses are seen as practically identical, with Freyja appearing as a younger version of Frigg. I personally see them as a dual aspect of one goddess, the lady (Freyja) and the mother (Frigg) with both playing a role in Norse pagan practices and worship.
Depictions: A beautiful woman with golden hair, she is often depicted wearing a cloak of falcon feathers and wearing a boar's headdress.
Symbols: Pigs or boars, chariot pulled by two cats, the ‘Necklace of Brisings’, cats, rabbits and flowers.
Offerings: flowers, gold, amber, yellow/ green or pink candles, rose quartz, beautiful jewelry.
Rituals: a very easy way to connect with Freyja is to step out into nature, walk through the woods and flowers and to sit in meditation to ask for her guidance. As a goddess of fertility and magic, you can use her symbols to call on her assistance when performing spells around love, fertility and sexual liberation.
Hel (Aesir)
Goddess of Death
History: Hel was the original name for the underworld in Norse mythology. Later it would come to be known as a goddess who ruled the underworld where the dead dwell. The daughter of Loki, she along with two of her siblings Jötunheimr and Fenrir were believed to be too much trouble by the other gods, so Odin made her the ruler of a realm of the same name, located in Niflheim. The realm of Hell or Niflheim was divided into several sections, shrouded in darkness and was the place where souls that had not made it to Valhalla resided. She is often seen as a dual-natured goddess, with her depictions and symbols often representing two halves as one.
Depictions: half a beautiful woman, half a blue corpse
Symbols: a womans face; half white and half black or a womans face which is half rotting.
Offerings & Rituals: As a goddess of death and the underworld, you can connect with Hela when seeking to communicate with the dead. One can make an altar with pictures and personal items of the person they wish to speak with, along with black candles and symbols of skulls. If you wish to make an offering to Hela herself, dark chocolate, wine, black onyx and bones are the way to go.
History: Hel was the original name for the underworld in Norse mythology. Later it would come to be known as a goddess who ruled the underworld where the dead dwell. The daughter of Loki, she along with two of her siblings Jötunheimr and Fenrir were believed to be too much trouble by the other gods, so Odin made her the ruler of a realm of the same name, located in Niflheim. The realm of Hell or Niflheim was divided into several sections, shrouded in darkness and was the place where souls that had not made it to Valhalla resided. She is often seen as a dual-natured goddess, with her depictions and symbols often representing two halves as one.
Depictions: half a beautiful woman, half a blue corpse
Symbols: a womans face; half white and half black or a womans face which is half rotting.
Offerings & Rituals: As a goddess of death and the underworld, you can connect with Hela when seeking to communicate with the dead. One can make an altar with pictures and personal items of the person they wish to speak with, along with black candles and symbols of skulls. If you wish to make an offering to Hela herself, dark chocolate, wine, black onyx and bones are the way to go.
Freyr (Vanir)
God Of Peace
History: Also known as Frey and Yngvi, Freyr is the ruler of peace and fertility and son of the sea god Njord. He is the twin brother of the goddess Freyja and was the most known fertility god in Norse mythology. Though depicted as a god of peace and fertility, he was also known for being a skilled warrior and the progenitor of a famous line of kings in Scandinavia.
Depictions: A young, naked man with an erect phallus and long curly hair. He has also been depicted alongside Thor and Odin with a sword, preparing for war.
Symbols: The phallus and the boar.
Omens: Rain, times of harvest, new love.
Offerings: gold, antlers, wheat or grains, images of stags and imagery of phalluses, pork, fresh water, wine.
Rituals: Long ago at Yule time (Mid-Winter), supplicants would offer a Yule Boar to Freyr, along with things like fresh water and barley wine so they could seek is blessing on their crops and for the spring season to come.
History: Also known as Frey and Yngvi, Freyr is the ruler of peace and fertility and son of the sea god Njord. He is the twin brother of the goddess Freyja and was the most known fertility god in Norse mythology. Though depicted as a god of peace and fertility, he was also known for being a skilled warrior and the progenitor of a famous line of kings in Scandinavia.
Depictions: A young, naked man with an erect phallus and long curly hair. He has also been depicted alongside Thor and Odin with a sword, preparing for war.
Symbols: The phallus and the boar.
Omens: Rain, times of harvest, new love.
Offerings: gold, antlers, wheat or grains, images of stags and imagery of phalluses, pork, fresh water, wine.
Rituals: Long ago at Yule time (Mid-Winter), supplicants would offer a Yule Boar to Freyr, along with things like fresh water and barley wine so they could seek is blessing on their crops and for the spring season to come.
Heimdall (Aesir)
The Watcher
History: A Norse Deity of the Aesir tribe, Heimdall was a god of keen eyesight and hearing, who stood ready to sound the Gjallarhorn at the beginning of Ragnarök. He stood guard against the invasion of Asgard and is known as a father to mankind in Midgard who holds a mysterious connection to Yggdrasil; The Tree of Life. Most famously, he is known as the guardian of the Bifrost; the rainbow bridge, with power over the sea and land.
Depictions: He is called the ‘White God’, considered the fairest in complexion to all others, with teeth of gold and a horse called Gulltoppr (Norse for ‘Golden Mane’). He sits atop the Bifrost at the edge of the heavens realm of Asgard, watching for the invasion of Jotuns (Giants) where he will sound the Gjallarhorn and beginning Ragnarök, where he will battle Loki.
Symbols: the rainbow bridge (Bifrost), golden horse, curved golden horn.
Offerings: mead, lamb and mutton, coffee.
Rituals: Heimdall is a very busy Deity, so it is best not to waste his time with lengthy rituals or speech. Ensure you are focused and have clear intentions for what you wish to speak to him about, only make offerings of coffee in the morning, and remember that he is a great protector, so any cause that relates to the defense of others will please him greatly. Remember; he has a sacred duty to watch the Bifrost and safeguard the realms, so ensure you use the brief time you have with him wisely. That being said, simply meditating on his values, keeping watch of yourself and how you interact with the world around you, and bringing awareness to the corners of your life that may seem shrouded in shadows are also ways to honor him.
History: A Norse Deity of the Aesir tribe, Heimdall was a god of keen eyesight and hearing, who stood ready to sound the Gjallarhorn at the beginning of Ragnarök. He stood guard against the invasion of Asgard and is known as a father to mankind in Midgard who holds a mysterious connection to Yggdrasil; The Tree of Life. Most famously, he is known as the guardian of the Bifrost; the rainbow bridge, with power over the sea and land.
Depictions: He is called the ‘White God’, considered the fairest in complexion to all others, with teeth of gold and a horse called Gulltoppr (Norse for ‘Golden Mane’). He sits atop the Bifrost at the edge of the heavens realm of Asgard, watching for the invasion of Jotuns (Giants) where he will sound the Gjallarhorn and beginning Ragnarök, where he will battle Loki.
Symbols: the rainbow bridge (Bifrost), golden horse, curved golden horn.
Offerings: mead, lamb and mutton, coffee.
Rituals: Heimdall is a very busy Deity, so it is best not to waste his time with lengthy rituals or speech. Ensure you are focused and have clear intentions for what you wish to speak to him about, only make offerings of coffee in the morning, and remember that he is a great protector, so any cause that relates to the defense of others will please him greatly. Remember; he has a sacred duty to watch the Bifrost and safeguard the realms, so ensure you use the brief time you have with him wisely. That being said, simply meditating on his values, keeping watch of yourself and how you interact with the world around you, and bringing awareness to the corners of your life that may seem shrouded in shadows are also ways to honor him.
United Kingdom
History of Healing and Spirituality
With thousands of years of human history, many cultures have practiced a variety of spiritual and healing modalities, combining them to create some extraordinary medical systems that still exist today! Here, we take a journey back in time, to learn about these cultures and their practices!
Important Note!
My practice is Celtic Druidism, so even though I am an Australian, I do not personally practice, in-depth, any of the other cultural practices listed here. What I am providing is a summary and historical context for many traditional spiritualities and healing modalities, and I'll even provide some links to content creators who specialize in those areas!
History & Culture
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age spanned 2100-750 BCE and was characterised as a more peaceful period with less inter-tribal warfare than in previous times.
It was a more egalitarian society than in the past, but a class of aristocracy was present.
The social structure was set up in settlements, farms and villages. Religious and social structures became more complex and formalised, and it was a matriarchal society with a very earth-based spirituality. This period saw the rising development of metal and its uses, such as the advent of copper and bronze tools, weapons, the potter's wheel, wheels, metal ploughs, and sickles.
The economy was largely agricultural, consisting of domesticated animal breeding, crafts and trades.
Iron Age
The Iron Age spanned 800 BCE–100 CE and was characterised by a shift into many small kingdoms and chiefdoms. This period also saw the early part of a transition from earth-based spirituality to Christianity, as well as increasing patriarchy and subjugation of women. This age saw the advent of iron tools and weapons, some experimentation with steel. There was more trade at this point in time, from the British Isles across the channel into mainland Europe, but it still a farming-based economy.
Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland
Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland were farming cultures.
Farming began in Britain between 5000-4000 BCE and in Ireland between 3900-3000 BCE.
People organised into settlements that were tribal in nature under a Chieftain
Permanent homes were built
Life became more sedentary in comparison as they moved away from a more nomadic lifestyle
The Bronze Age spanned 2100-750 BCE and was characterised as a more peaceful period with less inter-tribal warfare than in previous times.
It was a more egalitarian society than in the past, but a class of aristocracy was present.
The social structure was set up in settlements, farms and villages. Religious and social structures became more complex and formalised, and it was a matriarchal society with a very earth-based spirituality. This period saw the rising development of metal and its uses, such as the advent of copper and bronze tools, weapons, the potter's wheel, wheels, metal ploughs, and sickles.
The economy was largely agricultural, consisting of domesticated animal breeding, crafts and trades.
Iron Age
The Iron Age spanned 800 BCE–100 CE and was characterised by a shift into many small kingdoms and chiefdoms. This period also saw the early part of a transition from earth-based spirituality to Christianity, as well as increasing patriarchy and subjugation of women. This age saw the advent of iron tools and weapons, some experimentation with steel. There was more trade at this point in time, from the British Isles across the channel into mainland Europe, but it still a farming-based economy.
Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland
Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland were farming cultures.
Farming began in Britain between 5000-4000 BCE and in Ireland between 3900-3000 BCE.
People organised into settlements that were tribal in nature under a Chieftain
Permanent homes were built
Life became more sedentary in comparison as they moved away from a more nomadic lifestyle
Burials & Rituals
Megaliths
One of the more interesting archaeological aspects of this time was the use of megalithic structures as burial sites.
Megaliths (large rocks) were used primarily as burial places, to provide insight into the rituals and importance of burial within the spiritual and cultural traditions of the time.
Across Ireland, there are over 1500 of these structures, and there are three major types:
Court tombs
Portal tombs
Passage tombs
In general, these megaliths were large, earthen constructions built in the Stone Age and as one of the legacies of Neolithic Ireland.
Their construction appears to be around 3500 BCE, and they're heavily concentrated in Northern Ireland.
Portal tombs
Are identified by three or more vertical stones with one or two huge capstones on top
Usually, that capstone leans down towards one side, leaving an opening like a doorway
Human remains would be interred inside, with the entrance sealed with smaller stones
Passage tombs
Passage tombs were built a little later, likely built by settlers from western France, in the late Neolithic period
They were roughly circular, earthen mounds, with a central chamber built underneath, and a passage leading into it
The passage was made from large, vertical stones and flat stones laid across
The stone, inside and out, would be decorated with images
Some would have side chambers as well
Newgrange-Ireland
It was built around 2500 BCE, and is older than Stonehenge, and at least as old as the Egyptian pyramids
It has been completely restored
Sun shines directly down the main passage at dawn on the Winter Solstice to light up a triple spiral carved into the stone of the main chamber
Built by those who understood how the sun moved with time when it hits its pinnacle during the Winter Solstice
One of the more interesting archaeological aspects of this time was the use of megalithic structures as burial sites.
Megaliths (large rocks) were used primarily as burial places, to provide insight into the rituals and importance of burial within the spiritual and cultural traditions of the time.
Across Ireland, there are over 1500 of these structures, and there are three major types:
Court tombs
Portal tombs
Passage tombs
In general, these megaliths were large, earthen constructions built in the Stone Age and as one of the legacies of Neolithic Ireland.
Their construction appears to be around 3500 BCE, and they're heavily concentrated in Northern Ireland.
Portal tombs
Are identified by three or more vertical stones with one or two huge capstones on top
Usually, that capstone leans down towards one side, leaving an opening like a doorway
Human remains would be interred inside, with the entrance sealed with smaller stones
Passage tombs
Passage tombs were built a little later, likely built by settlers from western France, in the late Neolithic period
They were roughly circular, earthen mounds, with a central chamber built underneath, and a passage leading into it
The passage was made from large, vertical stones and flat stones laid across
The stone, inside and out, would be decorated with images
Some would have side chambers as well
Newgrange-Ireland
It was built around 2500 BCE, and is older than Stonehenge, and at least as old as the Egyptian pyramids
It has been completely restored
Sun shines directly down the main passage at dawn on the Winter Solstice to light up a triple spiral carved into the stone of the main chamber
Built by those who understood how the sun moved with time when it hits its pinnacle during the Winter Solstice
Henges
During the Bronze Age, the construction of large, earthen circles, called henges, and other types of stone circles was most likely for religious purposes, including animal sacrifice, and in some instances, perhaps human sacrifice.
Constructed as Neolithic tombs were falling out of use towards the end of the period
They were presumed to have many ceremonial functions
Evidence to suggest that burial practices shifted towards cremation and excarnation
Establishment of more formal places for cultural and religious ceremonies demonstrating the increasing complexity of religious and social structures
Evidence that people undertook pilgrimages to these places
Over 1000 stone circles preserved across the British Isles
Stonehenge
The construction of Stonehenge was a long-term cultural project.
It was constructed over a span of time from 3000-1600 BCE
Required a huge, long-term communal construction effort
Pushed Bronze Age technology to its limit
Evidence gathered nearby suggests lavish celebrations occurred there
Despite vast archaeological exploration and scholarly research, there is still no consensus on why Stonehenge was built and its true purpose.
One theory is that it was a burial ground and a monument to the dead, but some other popular theories have also emerged.
Constructed as Neolithic tombs were falling out of use towards the end of the period
They were presumed to have many ceremonial functions
Evidence to suggest that burial practices shifted towards cremation and excarnation
Establishment of more formal places for cultural and religious ceremonies demonstrating the increasing complexity of religious and social structures
Evidence that people undertook pilgrimages to these places
Over 1000 stone circles preserved across the British Isles
Stonehenge
The construction of Stonehenge was a long-term cultural project.
It was constructed over a span of time from 3000-1600 BCE
Required a huge, long-term communal construction effort
Pushed Bronze Age technology to its limit
Evidence gathered nearby suggests lavish celebrations occurred there
Despite vast archaeological exploration and scholarly research, there is still no consensus on why Stonehenge was built and its true purpose.
One theory is that it was a burial ground and a monument to the dead, but some other popular theories have also emerged.
Spiritualities
Balance of Opposites
The spirituality we saw at this time was very similar to other Earth-based religions in tribal cultures. It was a belief in the balance of opposites of Earth and Sky.
Earth: seen as a source of fertility
Sky: charting the passage of time (sun, moon, stars)
The belief was that both realms were inhabited by the gods, who needed to be placated. Placating the gods was a major spiritual and religious pursuit.
Offerings to Nature Deities
In pre-Celtic archaeological records, there is tangible data which reflect behaviours and belief systems that existed from the late Neolithic period all the way up until Celtic culture arrived.
We know that people of this time were interested in placating the deities which they saw as being a part of the realm of nature.
This was practiced through offerings of items of value to these deities.
Bronze and gold items found in peat bogs, buried, in wells, and in lakes and waterways (to Earth and Water)
Likely deposited there as part of religious ceremonies
Items of great value demonstrate the importance of offering gifts to deities
Offerings were made to the other elements as well, such as Fire and Air
This was practiced through the burning and releasing of material objects into the air
Human and animal remains have also been extracted from peat bogs, suggesting that they may have been sacrificed in a ceremonial manner and given as offerings.
The spirituality we saw at this time was very similar to other Earth-based religions in tribal cultures. It was a belief in the balance of opposites of Earth and Sky.
Earth: seen as a source of fertility
Sky: charting the passage of time (sun, moon, stars)
The belief was that both realms were inhabited by the gods, who needed to be placated. Placating the gods was a major spiritual and religious pursuit.
Offerings to Nature Deities
In pre-Celtic archaeological records, there is tangible data which reflect behaviours and belief systems that existed from the late Neolithic period all the way up until Celtic culture arrived.
We know that people of this time were interested in placating the deities which they saw as being a part of the realm of nature.
This was practiced through offerings of items of value to these deities.
Bronze and gold items found in peat bogs, buried, in wells, and in lakes and waterways (to Earth and Water)
Likely deposited there as part of religious ceremonies
Items of great value demonstrate the importance of offering gifts to deities
Offerings were made to the other elements as well, such as Fire and Air
This was practiced through the burning and releasing of material objects into the air
Human and animal remains have also been extracted from peat bogs, suggesting that they may have been sacrificed in a ceremonial manner and given as offerings.
Healing
Local herbal remedies well known and administered by healers or women within families.
The secrets to this home-based, folk medicine would have been passed down from generation-to-generation.
There is also evidence of surgery and herbal antiseptics.
Flint blades believed to be used as surgical tools
Healers also understood the need to keep wounds clean
The secrets to this home-based, folk medicine would have been passed down from generation-to-generation.
There is also evidence of surgery and herbal antiseptics.
Flint blades believed to be used as surgical tools
Healers also understood the need to keep wounds clean
The Celts
What came before the Anglo-Saxons was the migration of the Celts, leading to a replacement of language and culture as the Celts became the dominant culture for hundreds of years.
To learn about the Celts and their spiritual & healing philosophies, check out The Druids Path Page.
To learn about the Celts and their spiritual & healing philosophies, check out The Druids Path Page.
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